Coherence in Paragraphs . . .when each sentence in a paragraph serves a purpose and the readers know what that purpose is. English 12 Mrs. Wilson When a writer knows the purpose for the paragraph, then he or she revises to achieve coherence. First, of course, a writer needs to know the purpose for each paragraph. If a proper outline has been constructed, this should be an easy guide. [V. Zenari. Adapted from: Troyka, Lynn Quitman, and Cy Strom. Simon and Shuster Handbook for Writers. 3rd Can. ed. Toronto: Prentice Hall, 2002.]

You need to know the purpose of each paragraph before you work on coherence. The perfect paragraph could follow the example illustrated here and fits into the argument mode efficiently. 1) Opens with words from the question (what was your research question?) or can be rephrased to say opens with words from the thesis. 2) Uses relevant theory to explain and analyze the point—comes right from your research on the “problem”. 3) Follows a logical chain of analysis, using connectives (this is where coherence comes in). Use the logic handouts to test your analysis. 4) “Refers to “hooks” from the question or introduction to form/support points. (5) Contains real examples and/or evidence that support the point. (6) Comes back to the question for focus. (7) Finishes with an evaluative statement and a contrasting example/piece of evidence. Which functions as a transition to the next paragraph. At this point I want to talk about coherence.

Common Coherence Techniques Make it hang together. T Use transitional expressions. P Use pronouns. D Use deliberate repetition. Use parallelism. You have been taught these different techniques for years although it may have not been internalized. The first step is to integrate these into your writing. By trying to “fake” coherence and mechanically applying these TECHNIQUES, a writer may achieve "real" coherence. To that end let’s explore the techniques, not forgetting that the last revision concerns relating each paragraph to each other.

Transitional Expressions Indicate connections among ideas FANBOYS and Hey My Hands Feel Tingly are but a few to choose from. Select a relationship between the ideas. Connect those ideas appropriately. Transitional expressions are words and phrases that indicate connections among ideas. Their use is crucial in writing. Particularly in argumentative writing, the writer should consider issues related to critical thinking (such as soundness of arguments, fallacies, and flaws in premises). Try not to use the same expressions in the same piece of writing (especially if the text is short). A thesaurus may be helpful in coming up with relevant transitional expressions (but avoid weird ones). Elegant use of transitions takes practice, but inelegant use is better than no use.

Common transitional expressions (others are possible!) Relationship Addition also, in addition, too, moreover, and, besides, furthermore, equally important, then, finally, as well, further, indeed, in fact, ; [semicolon] Alternative either…or, if only, instead, instead of, in that case, neither…nor, otherwise, rather than, unless, whether…or, or, in other words Causation as a result of, because, due to, for, on account of, since Comparison similarly, likewise, in the same way, not only…but also, as…as [e.g., as big as a house] Concession of course, to be sure, certainly, granted We often use these transitions without being conscious of the effect. Give some thought as to the relationship between complete ideas (i.e. sentences). Deliberate choice of the relationship creates meaning without just “following the rule”.

Common Transitions continued. . . Relationship Expression Contrast but, yet, however, on the other hand, nevertheless, nonetheless, conversely, in contrast, by contrast, still, at the same time, although, despite, even if, whereas, by comparison Degree or extent for the most part, so…that [e.g., she is so loud that she doesn't need a microphone], to some extent, to some degree, to a certain extent, such…that [e.g., it is such a long way that I can't walk], in part, partly Example for example, for instance, thus, as an illustration, namely, specifically, such as, : [colon], in that Purpose so that, to, so as to, in order to, in such a way as to Result therefore, thus, as a result, so, accordingly, as a result, it follows that, consequently Summary hence, in short, in brief, in summary, in conclusion, to sum up There are also words we use in relationship to Time Sequence, such as: first, second, third, next, then, finally, afterwards, before, soon, later, meanwhile, subsequently, immediately, eventually, currently; and in relationship to Place: in the front, in the foreground, in the back, in the background, at the side, adjacent, nearby, in the distance, here, or there. These are less important in your argument.

Example: [from George Orwell's "Politics and the English Language"]:   In prose, the worst thing one can do with words is to surrender to them. When you think of a concrete object, you think wordlessly, and then, if you want to describe the thing you have been visualizing you probably hunt about till you find the exact words that seem to fit it. When you think of something abstract you are more inclined to use words from the start, and unless you make a conscious effort to prevent it, the existing dialect will come rushing in and do the job for you, at the expense of blurring or even changing your meaning. Probably it is better to put off using words as long as possible and get one's meaning as clear as one can through pictures or sensations. Afterwards one can choose- -not simply accept--the phrases that will best cover the meaning, and then switch round and decide what impression one's words are likely to make on another person.

Pronouns   EXAMPLE: [the first two paragraphs of Lenore Keeshig-Tobias' "He Was a Boxer When I Was Small"] His thundering rages are most vivid, his tears subtle. Watching and feeling for them, but unable to bridge the gap, I learned to love, hate him all in the same breath. No one ever knew this. They saw a kid in love with her father. He was a boxer when I was small. People say he was good and would have made it had he started younger, but he had a wife and growing family to provide for. Amateur boxing paid nothing, but he loved it. I think he must have been about twenty-two then. He claims that we were too young to have seen him fight, but I remember. [Note that the pronoun "he" creates coherence between the two paragraphs as well.] Use pronouns to connect specified nouns in earlier sentences to the content of later sentences. We often do this without thinking and the main problem becomes subject/verb agreement. This is where proofreading comes into play.

Deliberate Repetition Repeat a key term or phrase if that term or phase is central to the ideas in a paragraph. To create coherence in this way, synonyms of that key term are not useful. Furthermore, the shorter a paragraph is, the less often a writer should use repetition (since too much repetition can be monotonous and wordy). But deliberate repetition can be an uncomplicated way of indicating the centrality of an idea to a paragraph. This technique often occurs together with parallelism (see below).

Deliberate Repetition Example [from Marie Nelson's Beowulf's Boast Words”]  But let us begin as Beowulf begins, with the situation in the land of the Danes when Beowulf arrives. As readers will remember, all promisers do not follow through by doing what they say they will do. As Hrothgar explains to Beowulf, who has just arrived, his trusted "ōretmecgas" often promised to wait for Grendel's attack in the meadhall.

Parallelism Parallelism (or parallel structure) is the use of grammatically equivalent syntax** in adjacent sentences or within sentences. **Syntax is the arrangement of words and phrases to create well-formed sentence. The repeated rhythm of parallel structures informs the reader that the ideas in parallel structures are related to each another Like deliberate repetition, overuse of parallelism can at times cause monotony and wordiness: but consistent parallelism is extremely effective in promoting coherence. Indeed, lack of parallelism at times creates ungrammatical structures. Remember the basic sentence structure is Subject – Verb- Object. Syntax follows many different structures like the ones on your Sentence Variety handout. You are accustomed to speaking and writing with varied syntax and just need to be conscious of how these different sentences work in a paragraph. We as listeners and readers are more likely to get the point if repetition is used effectively.

Example of Parallelism [from Winston S. Churchill's speech on the evacuation at Dunkirk ("Wars Are Not Won by Evacuations")]  Even though large tracts of Europe and many old and famous states have fallen or may fall into the grip of the Gestapo and all the odious apparatus of Nazi rule, we shall not flag or fail. We shall go on to the end, we shall fight in France, we shall fight on the seas and oceans, we shall fight with growing confidence and strength in the air, we shall defend our island, whatever the cost may be, we shall fight on the beaches, we shall fight in the landing grounds, we shall fight in the fields and in the streets, we shall fight in the hills; we shall never surrender, and even if, which I do not for a moment believe, this island or a large part of it were subjugated and starving, then our Empire beyond the seas, armed and guarded by the British fleet, would carry on the struggle, until, in God's good time, the New World, with all its power and might, steps forth to the rescue and liberation of the old.   You immediately notice the emphasis on “we shall fight”. These are followed by prepositional phrases telling WHERE they will fight. He does add variation such as, “we shall not flag or fail; we shall defend our island; and we shall never surrender, which poses the direct instruction in a different way. Even though this a speech, the technique can be used in writing as well. In a researched paper you could use this technique to repeat examples, refute your opposition, or simply add emphasis to your point.

Remember to use: Common Coherence Techniques Use transitional expressions. Use pronouns. Use parallelism. Use deliberate repetition.