Chapter 12: Cognitive Development in School-Age Children 12.1 Cognitive Processes 12.2 The Nature of Intelligence 12.3 Individual Differences in Intellectual Skills 12.4 Academic Skills 12.5 Effective Schools

12.1 Cognitive Processes Concrete Operational Thinking Memory Skills

Concrete Operational Thinking From 7 to 11 years Thinking based on mental operations (logical, mathematical, spatial operations) Operations can be reversed Limit: focus on the real, not the abstract 12.1 Cognitive Processes

Memory Skills Memory strategies are gradually learned during childhood Successful learning involves identifying goals and choosing strategies Knowledge helps organize memory, but can distort recall Scripts aid recall, but can distort memory 12.1 Cognitive Processes

Use of Memory Strategies

Effects of Knowledge on Memory

Network of Knowledge

12.2 The Nature of Intelligence Psychometric Theories Gardner’s Theory of Multiple Intelligences Sternberg’s Triarchic Theory

Psychometric Theories Use patterns of test performance as starting point Test scores provide evidence for general intelligence (g) and specific intelligences Hierarchical theories are a compromise between general and specific theories 12.2 The Nature of Intelligence

Gardner’s Theory of Multiple Intelligences Instead of using test scores, draws upon research in child development, brain- damaged adults, and exceptional talent Proposes 7 intelligences: linguistic, logical-mathematical, spatial, musical, bodily-kinesthetic, interpersonal, intrapersonal 12.2 The Nature of Intelligence

Sternberg’s Triarchic Theory Contextual subtheory--intelligence involves skillful adaptation to a specific environment Experiential subtheory--on novel tasks, intelligence is shown by readily applying pertinent knowledge; on familiar tasks, by solving them automatically Componential subtheory--any intelligent act consists of cognitive components 12.2 The Nature of Intelligence

12.3 Individual Differences in Intellectual Skills Binet and the Develoment of Intelligence Testing Do Tests Work? Hereditary and Environmental Factors Impact of Ethnicity and Social Class Gender Differences in Intellectual Abilities and Achievement

Binet and the Development of Intelligence Testing Binet used mental age to distinguish “bright” from “dull” Led to the Stanford-Binet which gives a single IQ score; average = 100 WISC, devised in the 1930s, gives verbal and performance IQs 12.3 Individual Differences in Intellectual Skill

Distribution of IQ Scores

Sample Items from WISC-II Verbal Scale

Sample Items from the WISC-II Performance Scale

Do Tests Work? Are they reliable? In the short term, yes. In the longer term, less so. Are they valid? Yes, as long as validity is defined as success in school Validity can be increased with dynamic testing 12.3 Individual Differences in Intellectual Skill

Hereditary and Environmental Factors Effects of heredity shown in family studies and effects of environment shown in intervention studies (e.g., Carolina Abecedarian Project) Heredity also influences patterns of intellectual development (twins, adoptees) 12.3 Individual Differences in Intellectual Skill

Correlations of IQ for Family Members

Correlation Between Children’s IQ Scores and Biological and Adoptive Parents’ IQ Scores

Effects of Intervention on Test Scores

Impact of Ethnicity and Social Class Middle-class, white children tend to get higher scores Culture-fair intelligence tests reduce the difference but don’t eliminate it Test-taking styles must be considered, too 12.3 Individual Differences in Intellectual Skill

Racial Differences in IQ Scores

Culture-fair Test Item

Gender Differences in Intellectual Ability… Verbal ability: girls excel at reading & writing, less likely to have language- related disability Spatial ability: boys surpass girls Math: girls often get better grades, but boys have higher test scores 12.3 Individual Differences in Intellectual Skill

12.4 Academic Skills Reading Skills Writing Skills Math Skills

Reading Skills Prereading skills: knowing letters and letter sounds Sounding out and whole word recognition used in reading Changes in working memory, knowledge, monitoring, and reading strategies improve comprehension 12.4 Academic Skills

Writing Skills Older writers have more to tell Older writers know how to organize their writing (knowledge telling vs knowledge transforming strategies) Older writers are better able to deal with the mechanical requirements of writing Older writers are better able to revise 12.4 Academic Skills

Math Skills Children use many different strategies to add and subtract Compared to students in other countries, U.S. students not good In other countries, children spend more time in school, have more homework, parents have higher standards, & parents emphasize effort 12.4 Academic Skills

12.5 Effective Schools School-Based Influences on Student Achievement Teacher-Based Influences on Students Achievement

School-Based Influences on Student Achievement Schools are successful when they emphasize academic excellence Are safe and nurturing Involve parents Monitor progress of students, teachers, and programs 12.5 Effective Schools

Teacher-Based Influences on Student Achievement Students learn when teachers manage classrooms effectively Are responsible for students’ learning Emphasize mastery of topics Teach actively and pay attention to pacing Value tutoring and teach techniques for monitoring own learning 12.5 Effective Schools