Handbook of Language and Ethnic Identity Ch 21: The Slavic World By Miroslav Hroch

Divisions among Slavs Linguistic: –West: Poles, Czechs, Slovaks, Sorbs –East: Russians, Ukrainians, Belarusians –South: Slovenes, Croats, Serbs, Macedonians, Bulgarians Religious: –Catholic/Protestant: West Slavs + Ruthenians (Greek Catholics), Croats, Slovenes –Orthodox: East Slavs + Serbs, Bulgarians, Macedonians –Muslim: (some) Bosnians

Neighbors among the Slavs Balts: Lithuanians, Latvians Finno-Ugric: Hungarians, Estonians Romance: Romanians Albanians

Pre-nationalist empires The Slavs inhabited three multiethnic empires with three administrative languages: –Tsarist Russia (Russian) –Ottoman (Turkish) –Habsburg (German) Except for the Russians –All Slavs had a national revival –Slavic languages codified early 19th c –Slavs were primarily low status, lacking political power

Czechs Czech language was used as a literary/administrative language 14th-16th c Late 17th c Czech was replaced by German in public sphere, upper classes Germanized Early 19th c Dobrovsk ý writes grammar of Czech “for posterity”; Jungmann demands rights for Czech language; Czechs come to understand themselves as a nation in mid- 19th c

Slovaks Upper classes were mainly Magyarized or Germanized Since 16th c Czech was used as literary language Ethnic identity divided between Magyar (1000 yrs in that kingdom), Czech (Protestants), Slovak (Catholics) 1840s Ludovit Stur creates literary Slovak, but it does not gain real status until Czechoslovakia is established in 1918

Sorbs A small group (approx K) in the eastern part of Germany, differentiated into two linguistic varieties –Upper Sorbian (larger, closer to Czech) –Lower Sorbian (smaller closer to Polish) Agitated for recognition in 19 th c, did have some protections under East Germany (DDR), but all speakers are now bilingual and language is threatened

Croatians Kingdom was joined to Hungary (Latin), Dalmatian part also used Italian 16 th -17 th c first literary publications in Croatian Most Croats speak a dialect shared with Serbian; 1850 agreement on common “Serbo-Croatian” written in two scripts 20 th c rejection of Serbian dominance, since 1980s independent Croatian state and language overemphasizing differences from Serbian

Serbs Orthodox Church – an essential component of identity Ottoman empire late 14 th -19 th c, followed by independent Serbia Vuk Karadzic led movement for “Greater Serbia” stressing linguistic identity

Slovenes 1840s a group of SSl dialects in the Alps formed the basis for a literary language Previously weak ethnic identity based on local valleys, strong tendency toward assimilation Late 19 th c national mobilization; part of Yugoslavia in most of 20 th c; now separate state

Bulgarians 9 th c conversion to Orthodoxy and use of Old (Church) Slavonic, followed by Greek assimilation under Ottoman Empire 1860s formation of literary language mostly based on E dialects; 1878 Bulgarian nation/state emerges Continuing struggles over what/who is/isn’t Bulgarian (in Greece, Macedonia, Serbia)

Macedonians Macedonian nationalism begins with establishment of Bulgarian state –Macedonians: we are independent –Bulgarians: no, they are West Bulgarians –Greeks: no, Macedonia is part of Greece –Serbs: no, they are Bulgarized Serbs Macedonian literary lang est in 20 th c, a republic of Yugoslavia and now an independent state

Poles Medieval Poland-Lithuana used Polish & Latin Polish nationalism emerges when Poland is divided by conquerors (Prussia, Russia, Austria), under assimilation pressures (Germanification, Russification) Cultural support from wealthy Polish diaspora in W Europe

Ukrainians After dissolution of Poland-Lithuania, Ukrainian territory divided among Habsburg and Russian empires Russians regard them as “Little Russians”, but Austrians allowed “Ruthens” to develop their culture Ukraine is big, literary language based on central dialects After 1917, most of Ukraine was in USSR, subject to Russification, remainder in Poland was later seized by USSR, patriots were persecuted

Russians Literary/administrative language since middle ages, Russian state since 15 th c Since late 19 th c (under tsar and continued in USSR) Russification of non-Russian ethnic groups in the multiethnic empire

Summary Three Empires: –Habsburg: Germanification until 1860s, some improvements thereafter –Ottoman: Identity keyed to religion, not language –Russian: Persecution of non-Russians: Ukrainian & Belarusian considered dialects, Polish persecuted for political reasons, but slavophiles supported other W and S Slavs

Summary, cont’d. Czechs & Poles had literary languages since middle ages Others had to codify literary language based on one or more dialects National movements “purified” languages, distinguished them from ruling state or old church languages Strong identity of language with social status and strong identification of ethnicity and language