 Fixed (Indirect/Overheads) – are not influenced by the amount produced but can change in the long run e.g., insurance costs, administration, rent, some types of labour costs (salaries), some types of energy costs, equipment and machinery, buildings, advertising and promotion costs  Variable (Direct) – vary directly with the amount produced, e.g., raw material costs, some direct labour costs, some direct energy costs  Semi-fixed – where costs not directly attributable to either of the above, for example, some types of energy and labour costs

 Total Costs (TC) = Fixed Costs (FC)+ Variable Costs (VC)  Average Costs = TC/Output (Q)  AC (unit costs) show the amount it costs to produce one unit of output on average  Marginal Costs (MC) – the cost of producing one extra or one fewer units of production  MC = TC n – TC n-1

 Total Revenue – also known as turnover, sales revenue or ‘sales’ = Price x Quantity Sold  TR = P x Q  Price – may be a variety of different prices for different products in the portfolio  Quantity – could be global sales

 Profit (Π) = TR – TC  Normal Profit – the minimum amount required to keep a business in a particular line of production  Abnormal/Supernormal Profit – the amount over and above the amount needed to keep a business in its current line of production

 Occurs where Total Costs = Total Revenue  Start-up costs – fixed costs  Running costs – variable costs  Revenue stream depends on price charged  ‘Low’ price – need to sell more to break-even  ‘High’ price – lower level of sales required before breaking even Fixed Costs  Break-Even Point = Contribution

The Purpose of Accounts: To provide information for stakeholders Shareholders – progress of their investment Government – tax liability Suppliers – credit worthiness Customers – long term future of the business Prospective Investors – decision making Potential bidders in acquisition activity Trade Unions – negotiations with the company Management – monitor performance of the business Employees – their position in the business (they may well also be shareholders!)

 Shows the flow of sales and costs over a period  Shows the level of profit or loss made  Shows what has been done with the profit or loss

Consolidated Profit & Loss Account for the year ended Weeks52 Currency £ million Turnover Cost of sales Gross Profit Operating Expenses Operating Profit Other costs/income Profit before interest and taxation Net interest receivable (payable) Profit on ordinary activities before taxation Tax on profit on ordinary activities Profit on ordinary activities after taxation Equity minority interests Profit for the financial period Dividends Retained profit Profit and Loss Account for British Airways plc Source: bin/ratios/ratiodata.pl Turnover – the revenue earned over the year Gross Profit = turnover – cost of sales Operating Expenses – the fixed costs Operating or Net Profit = Gross profit – operating costs Cost of Sales – the variable costs, how much it cost the firm to produce what it has sold – not to be confused with sales revenue! Subtract other costs and expenses incurred to get profit before tax Subtract interest payments/recei pts to get profit on ordinary activities before tax Subtract tax due to get profit on ordinary activities after tax Final section called ‘appropriation account’ – shows where the profit/loss is going Dividend – the share of the profit returned to shareholders Retained Profit – the amount kept back for future investment, etc.

 A snapshot of the firm’s position at a point in time  Shows what a company owns (assets) and what it owes (liabilities)  Balance Sheet shows what assets a company has (use of funds) and where the money came from to acquire those assets (source of funds)

Consolidated Balance Sheet for the year ended Weeks52 Currency £ million Fixed assets Intangible Assets Tangible Assets Investments Total Fixed Assets Current assets Stock Debtors due within one year Short-term investments Cash at bank and in hand Total Current Assets Fixed Assets – assets not used up in production or lasting longer than one year – equipment, buildings, machinery, etc. Fixed assets can be tangible – i.e. physical items or intangible – i.e. brand name, goodwill. Current Assets: assets that are used up during production and which are likely to yield cash in the coming year – for example, stock will be sold and debtors owing the business money will pay up!

Creditors: Amounts falling due within one year Net Current Assets (liabilities) Total assets less current liabilities Creditors: Amounts falling due after more than one year Provisions for liabilities and charges Net assets Capital and reserves Called-up share capital271.0 Share premium788.0 Other reserves Profit and loss account Equit shareholders' funds Minority interests Total capital employed Subtracted from the assets are the money the company owes to creditors – suppliers for example And to those who are longer term creditors – loans, mortgage on property etc This leaves us with ‘Net Assets’ The funds to acquire these assets must have come from somewhere – the next section tells us where it came from. It can come from share capital and from retained profit (profit and loss account) The total capital employed must be the same as the sum of the net assets – hence the term ‘balance’ sheet!

 A guide to the structure of the assets of a company  A guide to the level of gearing – the ratio of loan to share capital  Gives a guide as to the degree of working capital – the amount the company has to be able to pay its everyday debts (current assets – current liabilities)  Shows the total value of a firm at that moment in time