The Age of Enlightenment Intellectual Sources of Reform and Revolution

Two Phases Scientific Revolution Scientific Revolution Philosophical Revolution Philosophical Revolution

Scientific Revolution New way of thinking—induction. New way of thinking—induction. New way of viewing the world—governed by natural law. New way of viewing the world—governed by natural law. Weakened traditional views/institutions Weakened traditional views/institutions

Heavy Hitters of the Sci. Rev. Galileo—through investigation established the heliocentric theory of the solar system. Galileo—through investigation established the heliocentric theory of the solar system. William Harvey—circulation of blood—the heart is just a pump. William Harvey—circulation of blood—the heart is just a pump. Isaac Newton—mathematical model of the universe. Isaac Newton—mathematical model of the universe. Robert Boyle—Boyle’s law. Robert Boyle—Boyle’s law. Antoine Laviosier—Conservation of Matter Antoine Laviosier—Conservation of Matter Natural laws govern the physical universe Natural laws govern the physical universe

The Scientific Revolution spawned the Philosophical Revolution The PR: European-wide, decades-long philosophical and literary movement that sought to improve the human condition through the application of reason. Attempt to discover and then align human activity— especially government—with inductively identified natural laws. Questioned traditional beliefs and practices-- Immanuel Kant in “What is Enlightenment?” (1781): “Have the courage to use your own understanding.” Religious toleration & secularization: Voltaire Observation and criticism essential: Diderot, Smith Championed the new science Belief in Progress

Anicet Charles Lemonnier, Madame Geoffrin‘s Salon in 1755 (1812) Franz Anton Mesmer magnetizing a distraught patient, ca. 1760

Enlightenment Institutions Salons Salons Academies Academies Masonic lodges Masonic lodges Newspapers Newspapers Coffee houses Coffee houses “Public opinion” “Public opinion” Forbidden literature Forbidden literature An 18 th Century English Coffee House

Economy and Science Scottish Enlightenment (Edinburgh) Political Economy Adam Smith, The Wealth of Nations (1776) opposed mercantilism, advocated laissez-faire economic system (supply and demand) The Physiocrats: overregulation bad, remove artificial barriers to production (esp. agriculture) Philosophy David Hume (d. 1776) and The Natural Religion of Philosophy, led to deism and atheism.

How was “Progress” Defined? First Sense: Improving conditions in the present § § General Optimism about Human Potential § § Drew upon Locke’s “Essay Concerning Human Understanding” (1690) Second Sense: Civilization was developing throughout history and had reached its peak in Europe Second Sense: Civilization was developing throughout history and had reached its peak in Europe § “Modern” era was superior to previous eras § Stages of Human Development

Claude-Nicolas Ledoux: Model Town (1775)

An 18 th Century Print Shop Literacy rates in 18 th century France, England, the Netherlands and the German states was one-third to one-half of men and somewhat less for women. Censorship ineffective.

Philosophes-- Arouet de Voltaire ( )— advocated empiricism and religious toleration—A Treatise on Tolerance (1763) Francois-Marie Arouet de Voltaire ( )— advocated empiricism and religious toleration—A Treatise on Tolerance (1763) Jean-Jacques Rousseau ( )—advocated equality rather than privilege—The Social Contract (1762) Charles-Louis de Secondat, Baron de Montesquieu ( )—advocated separation of governmental activities through structure—Spirit of the Laws (1748)

Rousseau Montesquieu

Diderot’s Encyclopedia—spread ideas of the Enlightenment Denis Diderot (1713 – 1784) A Classified Dictionary of the Sciences, Arts and Trades, ( ) A Classified Dictionary of the Sciences, Arts and Trades, 17 vols. (1751–1772) § Intended as a compilation of all knowledge § Over 150 contributors, including all of the prominent philosophes § Epitomized the skeptical, rational, scientific spirit of the age.

Spread of the Enlightenment

Effects of the Enlightenment Implications are revolutionary. Why? § § Proposed the belief that men ought to be ruled by laws, not rulers. § § The philosophes argued that social progress and political freedom were restrained by the state and the church and did not reflect man’s natural goodness. § § Belief in progress and man’s ability to solve problems. § § Intellectual justification for U. S., French, and Mexican Revolutions