Table of Contents C HAPTER 11 Human Development Across the Life Span

Table of Contents P ROGRESS B EFORE B IRTH : P RENATAL D EVELOPMENT 3 phases germinal stage = first 2 weeks conception, implantation, formation of placenta embryonic stage = 2 weeks – 2 months formation of vital organs and systems fetal stage = 2 months – birth bodily growth continues, movement capability begins, brain cells multiply age of viability

Table of Contents

E NVIRONMENTAL F ACTORS AND P RENATAL D EVELOPMENT Maternal nutrition Malnutrition linked to increased risk of birth complications, neurological problems, and psychopathology Maternal drug use Tobacco, alcohol, prescription, and recreational drugs Fetal alcohol syndrome Maternal illness Rubella, syphilis, mumps, genital herpes, AIDS, severe influenza Prenatal health care Prevention through guidance Infant mortality by countries – Slide 5 Preventive care for children

Table of Contents Cross-cultural comparisons of infant mortality

Table of Contents T HE C HILDHOOD Y EARS : M OTOR D EVELOPMENT Basic Principles Cephalocaudal trend – head to foot Proximodistal trend – center-outward Maturation – gradual unfolding of genetic blueprint Developmental norms median age – growth charts 95% level Cultural variations

Table of Contents Figure 11.3 – Developmental Motor milestones

Table of Contents E ASY AND D IFFICULT B ABIES : D IFFERENCES IN T EMPERAMENT Thomas, Chess, and Birch (1970) 3 basic temperamental styles easy – 40% slow-to-warm-up – 15% difficult – 10% mixed – 35% stable over time Kagan & Snidman (1991) Inhibited vs. uninhibited temperament inhibited – % uninhibited – % stable over time, genetically based

Table of Contents XX 11.4

Table of Contents E ARLY E MOTIONAL D EVELOPMENT : A TTACHMENT Separation anxiety Ainsworth (1979) The strange situation and patterns of attachment Secure Anxious-ambivalent Avoidant Figure 11.5, process and Figure 11.6, cross-cultural comparison Effects on mating strategy – slide 11 Developing secure attachment Bonding at birth – contact comfort – Harlow – p. 449 Daycare Cultural factors Evolutionary perspectives on attachment

Table of Contents Cultural variations in attachment patterns Attachment and mating strategy, from childhood to puberty

Table of Contents S TAGE T HEORIES OF D EVELOPMENT : P ERSONALITY Stage theories, three components progress through stages in order progress through stages related to age major discontinuities in development Erik Erikson (1963) Eight stages spanning the lifespan Psychosocial crises determining balance between opposing polarities in personality

Table of Contents XX 11.7

Table of Contents XX 11.8

Table of Contents S TAGE T HEORIES : C OGNITIVE D EVELOPMENT Jean Piaget (1920s-1980s) Assimilation/ Accommodation 4 stages and major milestones – Figure 11.9 Sensorimotor Object permanence Preoperational Centration, Egocentrism Concrete Operational Decentration, Reversibility, Conservation – F 11.10, F Formal Operational Abstraction

Table of Contents

XX 11.11

Table of Contents O THER C OGNITIVE A BILITIES Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Theory Thought and Language (1934) Importance of social interactions in cognitive development Zone of proximal development (ZPD) – difference in accomplishing alone and with help from others Inhibition – disinhibition – innate? Memory abilities – active maintenance rehearsal 9-10 years Memory capacities - metacognition

Table of Contents T HE D EVELOPMENT OF M ORAL R EASONING Kohlberg (1976) Reasoning as opposed to behavior Moral dilemmas Measured nature and progression of moral reasoning 3 levels, each with 2 sublevels Preconventional – punishment S1 – naïve reward S2 Conventional - good boy/good girl S3 – authority S4 Postconventional - social contract S5 – individual principles and conscience S6 Longitudinal studies –research issues (use of males), reasoning versus behavior Greene’s et al. studies of moral judgments and brain functioning – fMRI studies using 60 moral dilemmas

Table of Contents Age and moral reasoning based on Kohlberg’s stages

Table of Contents A DOLESCENCE : P UBERTY AND THE G ROWTH S PURT Pubescence – growth spurts 10 – 12 females 12 – 14 males Puberty Secondary sex characteristics Primary sex characteristics Menarche Sperm production Tanner stages Maturation: early vs. late – Belsky’s study Sex differences in effects of early maturation Brain Development in adolescence Risk taking Rates of suicide

Table of Contents Figure – Prefrontal Cortex and adolescence development

Table of Contents Figure Peer influence on risk taking

Table of Contents T HE S EARCH FOR I DENTITY Problems – suicide rates and brain development Erik Erikson (1968) Key challenge - forming a sense of identity James Marcia (1988) 4 identity statuses Foreclosure Moratorium Identity Diffusion Identity Achievement Longitudinal study – changes in the four statuses – slide 28

Table of Contents Figure Marcia’s four identity statuses

Table of Contents Slide 28 – Age and Identity status based on Marcia (1980), data from Meilman (1979)

Table of Contents E MERGING A DULTHOOD AS A N EW D EVELOPMENTAL S TAGE Search for identity extends into adulthood Ages 18 – 25 have become a distinct transitional stage of life Characterized by: subjective feeling of transition age of possibilities self-focused period of identity formation

Table of Contents T HE E XPANSE OF A DULTHOOD Personality development – midlife crisis? Social development – family life cycle, marriage, parenthood, empty nest Career development – patterns, work and in the home Physical changes – biological aging process Cognitive changes – mental abilities, memory, response time

Table of Contents Figure – Median age at first marriage in United States

Table of Contents Figure – Housework trends since the 1960s

Table of Contents Figure Age and the stability of primary mental abilities

Table of Contents G ENDER D IFFERENCES AND ISSUES Stereotypes Cognitive Social/personality Biological origins – brain hemisphere differences Hormone influences – estrogens and androgens Environment influences - socialization Gender role – gender versus sex

Table of Contents Figure – distribution of gender differences Figure – The cerebral hemispheres and the corpus callosum