The Enlightenment and Revolution Chapter Six

An Overview of the 18 th Century ► Political History  >>> ► Political History  >>> Reform ► Intellectual History   ► Intellectual History  Newtonian Physics  Reason ► Cultural History  ► Cultural History  Individualism ► Social History   ► Social History  Increased Literacy  Age of Aristocracy ► Economic History  > ► Economic History  > Mercantilism to Capitalism

The Origins of Enlightenment? ► SCIENTIFIC: e Newton’s system was synonymous with the empirical and the practical. e Scientific laws could be expressed as universal mathematical formulas. e Science allowed alternatives to be imagined in everything from politics to religion.

I. The Scientific Revolution  Roots of Modern Science  Most knowledge during the Middle Ages came from the Bible, Greeks, and Romans  Supported the geocentric theory  New Way of Thinking  Renaissance challenges long held beliefs  New ways of viewing the world  Based on observation and inquiry  Exploration opens up thinking

The Royal Academy of Sciences, Paris

Zoology & Biology A dissection at the Royal Academy, London.

Chemistry Labs & Botany Gardens

Natural History Collections ► Cocoa plant drawing. ► Sir Hans Sloane ( ). ► Collected from Jamaica.

Natural History Collections James Petiver’s Beetles (London apothecary)

Private Collections The Origins of Modern Museums.

Centers of the Enlightenment

The Heliocentric Theory  Copernicus develops the heliocentric theory – planets revolve around the sun  His theory is proven correct by Johannes Kepler  Galileo makes advances in astronomy  Supports the heliocentric theory with his telescopic observations  Catholic Church attacks heliocentric theory  Fears it will weaken people’s faith  Pope forces Galileo to declare his work wrong

Copernicus and his Theory

Johannes Kepler  The work of Kepler proved beyond doubt that Copernicus’s theories were mathematically correct

Galileo

 If you are sneezing a lot, are achy, and have a developing cough; what might be wrong with you? The Scientific Method

 The Scientific Method  Series of steps for forming and testing scientific theories  Thinkers Bacon and Descartes help to create the Scientific Method

“I think, therefore I am”  Rene Descartes said these words to summarize the concept that everything should be doubted until proved to be true.  This logic is the basis of the experimental method, which urges that conclusions be drawn from experiments and data.  This was the only way to fully understand the human body as well as the natural world.

Isaac Newton Enlightenment thinkers praised both Isaac Newton’s discovery of the mechanical laws that govern the universe and the scientific method that made such a discovery possible.  Mathematical and Natural Laws Govern all Physical Objects.

Scientific Discoveries  Isaac Newton  Theory of motion  Law of gravity  Andreas Vesalius  Improves knowledge on anatomy  Edward Jenner  Produces the world’s first vaccine – smallpox  Robert Boyle  Interaction between volume, temperature, and gas pressure (Boyle’s Law)

Vesalius’s Anatomical Drawings

Edward Jenner Robert Boyle

II. The Enlightenment in Europe  Views on Government  Old way of thinking – absolute monarchy  New way of thinking – democratic ideas  Europeans seek insight into society  People reassess many prevailing ideas

Hobbes and Locke  Thomas Hobbes (Leviathan)  Distrusts people, favored a strong gov’t  “Social Contract” – order by giving power to a monarch  John Locke (Two Treatises on Government)  Government gets power from the people  People have the right to overthrow an unjust government  Government must protect people’s “natural rights”

Hobbes In his masterpiece of political theory, Leviathan (1651), Hobbes stated that people were by nature selfish and ambitious. He thought the type of government needed to control selfish ambitions was absolute monarchy  NATURE hath made men so equal in the faculties of body and mind as that, though there be found one man sometimes manifestly stronger in body or of quicker mind than another, yet when all is reckoned together the difference between man and man is not so considerable as that one man can thereupon claim to himself any benefit to which another may not pretend as well as he. For as to the strength of body, the weakest has strength enough to kill the strongest, either by secret machination or by confederacy with others that are in the same danger with himself. CHAPTER XIII: OF THE NATURAL CONDITION OF MANKIND AS CONCERNING THEIR FELICITY AND MISERY

Thomas Hobbes Quotes  A man cannot lay down the right of resisting them that assault him by force, to take away his life. Thomas Hobbes A man's conscience and his judgment is the same thing; and as the judgment, so also the conscience, may be erroneous. Thomas Hobbes A wise man should so write (though in words understood by all men) that wise men only should be able to commend him. Thomas Hobbes All generous minds have a horror of what are commonly called "Facts". They are the brute beasts of the intellectual domain. Thomas Hobbes Curiosity is the lust of the mind. Thomas Hobbes During the time men live without a common power to keep them all in awe, they are in that conditions called war; and such a war, as if of every man, against every man. Thomas Hobbes Fear of things invisible in the natural seed of that which everyone in himself calleth religion. Thomas Hobbes Thomas Hobbes Thomas Hobbes Thomas Hobbes Thomas Hobbes Thomas Hobbes Thomas Hobbes Thomas Hobbes Thomas Hobbes Thomas Hobbes Thomas Hobbes Thomas Hobbes Thomas Hobbes Thomas Hobbes Thomas Hobbes

Hobbes In a kind of social contract, or agreement among members of society, people submitted to an authoritarian ruler to prevent disorder. Although Hobbes was a monarchist, his idea of a social contract was important for the development of democracy.  In short, people are naturally greedy and selfish and should be treated as such.

John Locke Thomas Hobbes

John Locke  Locke held a more positive view of human nature.  His book Two Treatises of Government was published in 1690, the year after the Glorious Revolution.  Locke argued that the English people had been justified in overthrowing James II. The government had failed under James to perform its most fundamental duty—protecting the rights of the people.  Locke said that all human beings had, by nature, the right to life, liberty, and property and in order to protect these natural rights, they formed governments.  The people had an absolute right, he said, to rebel against a government that violated or failed to protect their rights.

Quotes: What John Locke thought about Bad Government

Locke Locke believed that a government’s power comes from the people, not from God. This provided a strong argument against the divine right of kings. Locke’s ideas about self-government inspired people and became cornerstones of modern democratic thought.

The Philosophes  The Philosophes  French social critics in the mid 1700s  They valued reason, nature, progress, & liberty  Wrote essays and novels on politics and society

The Philosophes  Voltaire (Francois Marie Arouet)  Imprisoned twice for his views  Champion of freedom of speech and religious toleration  Montesquieu  Favored the separation of powers in gov’t  Rousseau  Favored individual freedom and direct democracy  Free people form governments (social contract) that serve them

Montesquieu Rousseau Voltaire

Voltaire and Rousseau Other thinkers of the Enlightenment admired the democratic nature of English institutions. They themselves, however, lived under absolute monarchs. Voltaire was a brilliant 18th- century French historian. He argued in favor of tolerance, freedom of religion, and free speech. Voltaire

Rousseau The French government and Christianity were often targets of his criticism. Perhaps the most freethinking of all Enlightenment philosophers was Jean-Jacques Rousseau. His most famous work was The Social Contract (1762). In it, Rousseau advocated democracy. Unlike Hobbes, he called the social contract an agreement among free individuals to create a government that would respond to the people’s will. Man is born free, and everywhere he is in chains. chains The person who has lived the most is not the one with the most years but the one with the richest experiences. It is too difficult to think nobly when one thinks only of earning a living. The strongest is never strong enough to be always the master, unless he transforms strength into right, and obedience into duty. strengthrightobediencedutystrengthrightobedienceduty

Montesquieu  Baron de Montesquieu, another French philosopher also recognized liberty as a natural right. In The Spirit of the Laws (1748), Montesquieu pointed out that any person or group in power will try to increase its power.

Legacy of the Enlightenment  Philosophes are not activists, but inspire others  Scientific breakthroughs show the capacity to improve society  New knowledge leads people to question their governments and religion  People emphasize individual rights and abilities

III. The Enlightenment Spreads  Paris was the center of the Enlightement  Many salons – gatherings where thinkers discuss ideas and philosophy  Denis Diderot – Encyclopedia  Set of books on Enlightenment ideas  Angers the French gov’t and Church  Spreads Enlightenment ideas throughout Europe

A Parisian Salon

Madame Geoffrin and her Salon

Denis Diderot

New Artistic Styles  Music  More elegant and lighter  Mozart and Beethoven  Literature  Novels and works of fiction  Richardson’s “Pamela” the first true English novel

Beethoven

Mozart

Enlightenment Literature  Books were very expensive  About one day’s pay  Many people would share literature  Novels, plays, journals, newspapers, and pamphlets

Important Literature Works

Enlightenment and Monarchy  Enlightened Despots  Monarchs who embrace Enlightenment ideas and values to strengthen their rule  Frederick the Great of Prussia  Reforms education and justice system  Grants religious freedom, abolishes torture  Fails to end serfdom  Joseph II of Austria  Freedom of worship and the press  Abolishes serfdom (reinstated after his death)

Frederick the Great Joseph II

Enlightenment and Monarchy (cont)  Catherine the Great of Russia  Expands Russian Empire (seizes Poland)  Gains port access thru Black Sea  Attempts to abolish capital punishment and torture – fails to do so  Gives nobles more power over serfs

Catherine the Great

The Partition of Poland

Russian Expansion under Catherine