English Linguistics 1

3 What's in a word: lexicology 3.1Conceptual and lexical categories 3.1.1Conceptual categories 3.1.2Lexical categories 3.2Words and meanings 3.2.1Routes to meaning 3.2.2What is meaning? Session 32

3.3Lexical fields 3.4Lexical relations/meaning relations Synonymy Relationships of contrast Hierarchical relationships Session 33

3.5Lexical ambiguity 3.5.1Polysemy 3.5.2Homonymy 3.6Metaphor and metonymy 3.6.1Metaphor 3.6.2Metonymy Session 34

3.1 Conceptual and lexical categories aspects focused on so far: signs - the link between their (material) form and meaning / function in order to get a better understanding of the nature of language: a 'look' into the minds of the speakers / the conceptual world – the pre-linguistic world Session 35

3.1.1 Conceptual categories concept: a person's 'idea' of what something in the world is like e.g. 'mother', 'dog'– single entities – Session 36

humans tend to 'slice' reality into discernible units → conceptual categories whenever we perceive sth. we attempt to categorize it, e.g. piece of music classification as jazz, rock, pop, classical, techno, ethno, world music etc Session 37

conceptual categories laid down / expressed in language = linguistic categories (signs) we all have made experience that there are more concepts than linguistic expressions, e.g. when we try to describe a phenomenon knowing that there is no exact term; different from just not knowing a term! Session 38

Session 3 9 conceptual categories/stage linguistic categories/levelother modes of expression lexiconsyntax/grammar formmeaning realization as sound sign Fig. 3-1: From concept to sound (simplified)

What makes the step from concept to linguistic category so interesting? problems / questions: - Are concepts universal/ the same for all humans? - Are concepts socio-culturally determined? - What happens when concepts are 'translated' into languages? no attempt at definite answers! just a glimpse at some phenomena Session 310

compare expressions for same concept in different languages: E F GHufeisen I → different languages may 'translate' the same phenomenon differently – the construal / construction of the 'world' in linguistic items Session 311

Signs differently motivated: E, F, I – relationship between the animal as a whole and the protecting device G – F, I, G – E – Session 312

Egrand piano - Fpiano à queue - GFlügel - F and G – Session 313

concept: 'part of the street for pedestrians' BEpavement - AEsidewalk - Ftrottoir - from trotter: GGehsteig - Bürgersteig - AuG Trottoir - see French, but? Session 314

so far: conceptual categories 'translated'  words or lexical categories similar relationships applies also to 'translation'  grammatical categories Session 315

different ways of saying more or less the same thing Look at that rain. same lexical category: rain different word classes: (1) noun, (2) verb Session 316

E kiss Navajo Session 317

Summary: when transforming a concept into a linguistic category languages may focus on different characteristics / features of the concept and make this characteristic the most prominent by expressing it linguistically, at the same time – disregard other features; the same applies to more complex conceptual phenomena Session 318

3.1.2 Lexical categories examples from relatively 'clear' (horse- shoe, piano, pavement) definition/ description of their 'lexical meaning' can be agreed upon by different people other cases add another dimension, e.g. vase ? Session 319

ex. vase many different shapes and types - common denominator: 'container for flowers' question: what is our concept of a typical 'vase'? Session 320 Fig. 3-2

ex. chair: task: draw a picture of a 'chair', that comes to your mind, do not think too long about it, there is no 'right' or 'wrong' Session 321

the most typical or best member – the subtype that first comes to mind = prototype / prototypical member ≠ peripheral members Session 322

Session 323 Fig. 3-3: Chairs category of stools different from chairs – lack of a back

Fig. 3-4: A selection of the drawings of cup-like objects used by Labov Session 324

centre firmly established boundaries far from absolute fuzzy, overlap Session 325

3.2 Words and meanings Routes to meaning Two starting points: 1. word  which senses? 2. concept  which words? Session 326

ad 1. dictionary  fruit a, b, c, d….. word form  list of various senses = semasiology (Greek sema 'sign') Look up the senses/meanings of 'fruit' in the DCE or another monolingual dictionary (at least 5 to 6 meanings): Session 327

fruit /fru:t/ n plural fruit or fruits Session 328

Session 329

ad 2. onomasiology (Greek ónoma 'name') concept  list of words which denote the same or similar concepts use a dictionary of synonyms to find synonyms for the concept of 'fruit': (thesaurus, synonym finder) Session 330

fruit, n. a. b Session 331

3.2.2 What is meaning? no generally accepted definition of 'meaning' suggestion (1): words name or label things in the world, two aspects are taken care of:  distinction between denotation and reference Session 332

denotation – class of things indicated by a word reference – a particular thing when the word is used e.g. A cat. A cat. Three men Session 333

suggestion (2): two aspects - all 'things' in the world the expression can be used to refer to and the inherent / internal characteristics or features  distinction between extension and intension Session 334

extension – all things, facts, abstract ideas … which can be referred to by the same linguistic expression (= ~ denotation, see above) intension – the features which define the expression Session 335

exs.: evening star, morning star – different intension, same extension = Tony Blair (extension) different intensions (up to 2007): the prime minister of GB, the Labour leader, Cherie's husband Session 336

suggestion (3): the semantic triangle – room for the idea, the concept Session 337 signifié signified Begriff signifiant signifier Bezeichnung chose thing Sache

Other types of meaning (so far: 'denotation and reference') e.g. That girl is a real cat. ('unpleasant woman') cat – different from cat 1 (denotation) they differ in denotation - they also differ in the associations that come to our mind Session 338

+ types of meaning which refer to associations that words have for us connotation / connotational meanings Session 339

Try to complete the types: individual associations: woman stylistic or social: give other choices with a stylistic difference domicile Session 340

regional: editorial – petrol – chips – … reflected meaning: the Holy Ghost, the Comforter Session 341

collocational meaning 'good looking, attractive' pretty - handsome pretty + [ ] handsome + [ ] different in their collocations Session 342

languages differ in the collocational range of words G Nase, Zähne, Schuhe putzen E Session 343