Morphology and Syntax Phrase structure

Phrases must have a head [ Intelligent cats with long tails] are lovely. [ NP Intelligent cats with long tails] are lovely. [ Cats] are lovely [ NP Cats] are lovely *[ Intelligent with long tails] are lovely. *[ NP Intelligent with long tails] are lovely. Sue is [ very ill indeed]. Sue is [ AP very ill indeed]. Sue is [ ill]. Sue is [ AP ill]. *Sue is [ very indeed]. *Sue is [ AP very indeed]. The water went [ down the drainpipe]. The water went [ PP down the drainpipe]. The water went [ down]. The water went [ PP down]. *The water went [ the drainpipe]. *The water went [ PP the drainpipe].

Complements S: John will never read a book. John will never read a book but Bill will frequently do so. *John will never read a book and Bill will do so a paper. Read a book John will never do. *Never read John will do a book. Conclusion:read a book is a constituent of S never read is not a constituent of S

Specifiers John will [never read a book]. The cinema [reluctantly refunded the tickets]. The firm has [in her absence adopted a new policy].

The structure of VPs VP specifier V’ (“ V bar”) specifier V’ (“ V bar”) never never Vcomplement Vcomplement reada book reada book

Complements to verbs are not always NPs Betty went [ to Mali]. Betty went [ PP to Mali]. Kate asked [ if Lenny had listened to that cd]. Kate asked [ S if Lenny had listened to that cd].

Heads select the type of complement Kate asked [ if it was time to go]. Kate asked [ S if it was time to go]. Kate asked [ the time]. Kate asked [ NP the time]. Kate wondered [ if it was time to go]. Kate wondered [ S if it was time to go]. *Kate wondered [ the time]. *Kate wondered [ NP the time].

The structure of NPs Nouns can also combine with complements and specifiers. quick inspections of the patients and slow ones *quick inspections of the patients and ones of the hospital

NP specifier specifier N’ specifier specifier N’ the quick N PP N PP inspection inspection P NP P NP of of specifier N specifier N the patient the patient

Complements to nouns In Modern English, complements to nouns usually are PPs: an inspection of the patients *an inspection the patients Sentences can appear as complement to a noun as well: [ the hypothesis [ that the moon is made of green cheese]] [ NP the hypothesis [ S that the moon is made of green cheese]] [ the question [ whether JFK was the victim of a plot]] [ NP the question [ S whether JFK was the victim of a plot]]

Recursion A phrase can contain another phrase of exactly the same type as the containing phrase. [ an inspection [ of [ the patients [ with [ red pyjamas]]]]] [ NP an inspection [ PP of [ NP the patients [ PP with [ NP red pyjamas]]]]]

Recursion of sentences [ John regrets [ that Mary believes these rumours]] [ S John regrets [ S that Mary believes these rumours]] John regrets [that Mary believes [that Harry has said [that the paper reported [that…

Complements in APs They are [ proud of their daughter]. They are [ AP proud of their daughter]. They are [ mad about dogs]. They are [ AP mad about dogs]. They are [ fond of their daughter]. They are [ AP fond of their daughter]. *They are [ fond]. *They are [ AP fond].

Specifiers in APs That shirt is [ too red to go in the washing machine with the white shirt]. That shirt is [ AP too red to go in the washing machine with the white shirt]. In winter the city is [ very cold]. In winter the city is [ AP very cold]. Sam is [ rather fond of dogs]. Sam is [ AP rather fond of dogs].

Complements in PPs This will last [ until Doomsday]. This will last [ PP until Doomsday]. *This will last [ until]. *This will last [ PP until]. a piece [ of cake] a piece [ PP of cake] *a piece [ of] *a piece [ PP of] We’ll go on [ from here]. We’ll go on [ PP from here]. *We’ll go on [ from]. *We’ll go on [ PP from].

PPs without a complement I’ve never met him [ before today]. I’ve never met him [ PP before today]. I’ve never met him [ before]. I’ve never met him [ PP before]. The paint came [ off the wall]. The paint came [ PP off the wall]. The paint came [ off]. The paint came [ PP off]. They went [ down the hill]. They went [ PP down the hill]. They went [ down]. They went [ PP down].

Complements in PPs are not always NPs [ After [ they went to America]] they started a new trade. [ PP After [ S they went to America]] they started a new trade. We have had no rest [ since [ our new neighbours started a pub]]. We have had no rest [ PP since [ S our new neighbours started a pub]]. [ From [ under the bridge]] came a herd of strange creatures. [ PP From [ PP under the bridge]] came a herd of strange creatures. This play lasts [ until [ after midnight]]. This play lasts [ PP until [ PP after midnight]].

Specifiers in PPs They went [ all the way down the mine shaft]. They went [ PP all the way down the mine shaft]. They found it [ ten meters under the ground]. They found it [ PP ten meters under the ground].

The “X bar” schema for phrase structure XP specifier(s) X’ X complement(s) X complement(s)

What about sentences? S NP VP Do sentences not have a head?

Language variation in the ordering of heads, complements and specifiers put meat in the pot béle-bi-ò náma tua pot-the-in meat put stay in the house with him u-momó wári-bi-ò tími him-with house-the-in stay

these three big books *these big three books *three big these books *three these big books *big these three books *big three these books nangseuu jaj saam lem nii book big three classifier this ‘these three big books’

Universals Languages in which V precedes its complement tend to have prepositions, so P precedes its complement as well. Languages in which V follows its complement tend to have postpositions, so P follows its complement as well.

Ze zwommen [in het kanaal]. Ze zwommen [het kanaal in]. they swam in the canal they swam the canal in ‘They were swimming in the canal.’‘They swam into the canal.’ une nouvelle maisonun livre noir a new housea book black ‘a new house’‘a black book’