America’s History Seventh Edition James A. Henretta Rebecca Edwards Robert O. Self America’s History Seventh Edition CHAPTER 12 The South Expands: Slavery and Society, 1800-1860 Copyright © 2011 by Bedford/St. Martin’s

1. How many generations of slaves can you identify in this 1862 photograph? (Answer: four, possibly five.) 2. In your opinion, why did traveling photographer Timothy O’Sullivan choose to photograph this slave family? (Answer: South Carolina seceded in 1860 yet this family remains on plantation, several generations have been allowed to stay together by the owner.)

2. In your opinion, why did traveling photographer Timothy O’Sullivan choose to photograph this slave family? 1. How many generations of slaves can you identify in this 1862 photograph? (Answer: four, possibly five.) 2. In your opinion, why did traveling photographer Timothy O’Sullivan choose to photograph this slave family? (Answer: South Carolina seceded in 1860 yet this family remains on plantation, several generations have been allowed to stay together by the owner.)

I. Creating the Cotton South The Domestic Slave Trade (1776-1809) 115,000 Africans imported 1809 – U.S. participation in Atlantic trade ended illegal importation through Florida and Texas continued through 1869, bringing 50,000 slaves.) The Upper South Exports Slaves black population grew naturally in the Chesapeake traders began selling to planters in the Deep South by 1860 more than 400,000 slaves were traded from Virginia alone transfers and sales took place slaves given to grown white children settling in the western slave territories by 1860 majority of slaves lived in the Deep South (Georgia to Texas) many transports worked the sugar plantations in Louisiana – “place of slaughter” Chesapeake planters increased their wealth substantially through sales. 2. The Impact on Blacks Creating the Cotton South The Domestic Slave Trade (1776-1809: 115,000 Africans imported; 1809 – U.S. participation in Atlantic trade ended; illegal importation through Florida and Texas continued through 1869, bringing 50,000 slaves.) The Upper South Exports Slaves – black population grew naturally in the Chesapeake; traders began selling to planters in the Deep South; by 1860 more than 400,000 slaves were traded from Virginia alone; transfers and sales took place; slaves given to grown white children settling in the western slave territories; by 1860 majority of slaves lived in the Deep South (Georgia to Texas); many transports worked the sugar plantations in Louisiana – “place of slaughter”; Chesapeake planters increased their wealth substantially through sales. The Impact on Blacks – domestic trade revealed how vulnerable slave population was as “property”; approximately one-quarter slave marriages were destroyed by trade; separated one-third children under age 14 from their parents; family ties were strong among slaves, despite conditions; planters often viewed themselves as “benevolent masters” caring for their “family,” including their slaves; often argued they only sold those who were difficult; few questioned the morality of the trade. 4

I. Creating the Cotton South The Domestic Slave Trade (1776-1809) 115,000 Africans imported 1809 – U.S. participation in Atlantic trade ended illegal importation through Florida and Texas continued through 1869, bringing 50,000 slaves.) 2. The Impact on Blacks domestic trade revealed how vulnerable slave population was as “property” approximately one-quarter slave marriages were destroyed by trade separated one-third children under age 14 from their parents family ties were strong among slaves, despite conditions; planters often viewed themselves as “benevolent masters” caring for their “family,” including their slaves often argued they only sold those who were difficult; few questioned the morality of the trade. Creating the Cotton South The Domestic Slave Trade (1776-1809: 115,000 Africans imported; 1809 – U.S. participation in Atlantic trade ended; illegal importation through Florida and Texas continued through 1869, bringing 50,000 slaves.) The Upper South Exports Slaves – black population grew naturally in the Chesapeake; traders began selling to planters in the Deep South; by 1860 more than 400,000 slaves were traded from Virginia alone; transfers and sales took place; slaves given to grown white children settling in the western slave territories; by 1860 majority of slaves lived in the Deep South (Georgia to Texas); many transports worked the sugar plantations in Louisiana – “place of slaughter”; Chesapeake planters increased their wealth substantially through sales. The Impact on Blacks – domestic trade revealed how vulnerable slave population was as “property”; approximately one-quarter slave marriages were destroyed by trade; separated one-third children under age 14 from their parents; family ties were strong among slaves, despite conditions; planters often viewed themselves as “benevolent masters” caring for their “family,” including their slaves; often argued they only sold those who were difficult; few questioned the morality of the trade. 5

1. According to this advertisement, what qualities were particularly valuable in a slave? (Answer: accustomed to sugar plantation work; skilled in an occupations such as cooper, brick maker, coachman, seamstress.) 2, What evidence does this ad provide that slavery was a business? (Answer: “head of slaves” is similar to descriptions in sales of livestock; pricing of families and individuals for sale; ages and genders of slaves listed with occupations; slaves appear to be valued based on age, gender, and occupations.)

2. What evidence does this ad provide that slavery was a business? 1. According to this advertisement, what qualities were particularly valuable in a slave? (Answer: accustomed to sugar plantation work; skilled in an occupations such as cooper, brick maker, coachman, seamstress.) 2, What evidence does this ad provide that slavery was a business? (Answer: “head of slaves” is similar to descriptions in sales of livestock; pricing of families and individuals for sale; ages and genders of slaves listed with occupations; slaves appear to be valued based on age, gender, and occupations.)

I. Creating the Cotton South The Dual Cultures of the Planter Elite (Approx. 3,000 families owned more than 100 slaves each.) The Traditional Southern Gentry expansion split the plantation elite: traditional Old South aristocrats (wealth from rice and tobacco, lived in Chesapeake, South Carolina, Georgia) and capitalists/planters (cotton-producing states) aristocrats married their children to one another to maintain privileged identity men were planters, merchants, lawyers, newspaper editors, ministers lived extravagantly rice planters were wealthiest in the Chesapeake and Old South production of goods changed with migration and transfers tobacco farmers moved west to gain wealth from cotton. 2. The Ideology and Reality of “Benevolence” 3. Cotton Entrepreneurs Creating the Cotton South The Dual Cultures of the Planter Elite (Approx. 3,000 families owned more than 100 slaves each.) The Traditional Southern Gentry – expansion split the plantation elite: traditional Old South aristocrats (wealth from rice and tobacco, lived in Chesapeake, South Carolina, Georgia) and capitalists/planters (cotton-producing states); aristocrats married their children to one another to maintain privileged identity; men were planters, merchants, lawyers, newspaper editors, ministers; lived extravagantly; rice planters were wealthiest in the Chesapeake and Old South; production of goods changed with migration and transfers; tobacco farmers moved west to gain wealth from cotton. The Ideology and Reality of “Benevolence” – planter aristocracy defended slavery as a “positive good” or “normal condition”; some required slaves to attend church services, building churches on their land; attempted to shape slaves’ behavior; used religion to justify slavery; many absentee slaveowners lived in urban areas. Cotton Entrepreneurs – less extravagance in the Deep South among capitalists; slavery was more harsh in this region and slaves resisted the system more vigorously; unlike in the Chesapeake where slaves gained other skills, cotton production was labor intensive; “gang-labor system” (1820s) meant to increase output and keep slaves working at a steady pace; by 1840s gangs were producing approximately 4 million bales of cotton/year.

I. Creating the Cotton South B. The Dual Cultures of the Planter Elite (Approx. 3,000 families owned more than 100 slaves each.) 2. The Ideology and Reality of “Benevolence” planter aristocracy defended slavery as a “positive good” or “normal condition” some required slaves to attend church services, building churches on their land attempted to shape slaves’ behavior used religion to justify slavery; many absentee slaveowners lived in urban areas. 3. Cotton Entrepreneurs less extravagance in the Deep South among capitalists slavery was more harsh in this region and slaves resisted the system more vigorously unlike in the Chesapeake where slaves gained other skills, cotton production was labor intensive “gang-labor system” (1820s) meant to increase output and keep slaves working at a steady pace by 1840s gangs were producing approximately 4 million bales of cotton/year. Creating the Cotton South The Dual Cultures of the Planter Elite (Approx. 3,000 families owned more than 100 slaves each.) The Traditional Southern Gentry – expansion split the plantation elite: traditional Old South aristocrats (wealth from rice and tobacco, lived in Chesapeake, South Carolina, Georgia) and capitalists/planters (cotton-producing states); aristocrats married their children to one another to maintain privileged identity; men were planters, merchants, lawyers, newspaper editors, ministers; lived extravagantly; rice planters were wealthiest in the Chesapeake and Old South; production of goods changed with migration and transfers; tobacco farmers moved west to gain wealth from cotton. The Ideology and Reality of “Benevolence” – planter aristocracy defended slavery as a “positive good” or “normal condition”; some required slaves to attend church services, building churches on their land; attempted to shape slaves’ behavior; used religion to justify slavery; many absentee slaveowners lived in urban areas. Cotton Entrepreneurs – less extravagance in the Deep South among capitalists; slavery was more harsh in this region and slaves resisted the system more vigorously; unlike in the Chesapeake where slaves gained other skills, cotton production was labor intensive; “gang-labor system” (1820s) meant to increase output and keep slaves working at a steady pace; by 1840s gangs were producing approximately 4 million bales of cotton/year.

1. Considering what you know about slavery in the South, speculate on the circumstances that could have led to this man’s physical condition. 1. Considering what you know about slavery in the South, speculate on the circumstances that could have led to this man’s physical condition. (Answer: insubordinate behavior, attempted escape, failure to complete work, completing work too slowly.) 2. Why might Union soldiers have chosen to photograph Gordon’s scars? (Answer: publicizing such an obvious example of the brutality of slavery during the Civil War undoubtedly would have provoked response by northerners against the institution of slavery; depending upon the political convictions of the soldiers who photographed this man, they may have wanted to encourage support of emancipation and not just restoration of the Union through the war effort.)

2. Why might Union soldiers have chosen to photograph Gordon’s scars? 1. Considering what you know about slavery in the South, speculate on the circumstances that could have led to this man’s physical condition. (Answer: insubordinate behavior, attempted escape, failure to complete work, completing work too slowly.) 2. Why might Union soldiers have chosen to photograph Gordon’s scars? (Answer: publicizing such an obvious example of the brutality of slavery during the Civil War undoubtedly would have provoked response by northerners against the institution of slavery; depending upon the political convictions of the soldiers who photographed this man, they may have wanted to encourage support of emancipation and not just restoration of the Union through the war effort.)

I. Creating the Cotton South Planters, Smallholding Yeomen, and Tenants (By 1860 only about 25% of whites in the South owned slaves, down from 36% in 1830.) 1. Planter Elites approximately 5% of white population in the South owned 20 or more slaves “substantial proprietors” 20% of population and owned 6-20 slaves each lawyers had wealth, either owned slaves or managed the financial affairs of those who did. 2. Smallholding Planters and Yeomen 3. Poor Freemen The Settlement of Texas 1. The Austins 2. “Remember the Alamo” Creating the Cotton South Planters, Smallholding Yeomen, and Tenants (By 1860 only about 25% of whites in the South owned slaves, down from 36% in 1830.) Planter Elites – approximately 5% of white population in the South owned 20 or more slaves; “substantial proprietors” 20% of population and owned 6-20 slaves each; lawyers had wealth, either owned slaves or managed the financial affairs of those who did. Smallholding Planters and Yeomen – majority; owned 1-5 slaves and less than 100 acres of land; wanted more land but either couldn’t afford it or were waiting to inherit it from fathers; wives of yeomen had little power, losing all legal identity at marriage; women participated in Baptist and Methodist Evangelical churches at a rate of 2/1 over men; white landowners in this class worked alongside slaves. Poor Freemen – propertyless whites with no social mobility; slaveowners refused to pay taxes to fund public schools; poor white men struggled to get jobs that required labor because landowners preferred slave labor; served in slave patrols as a requirement of citizenship even if they did not own slaves; psychological satisfaction that they were “higher” than blacks in southern society; when possible, migrated to west of the Appalachian Mountains, where they hoped to establish a home/farm with family members. The Settlement of Texas The Austins – Moses Austin received a land grant and Mexican citizenship when he moved to the region after Mexico was granted independence in 1821; son Stephen followed him and received approximately 180,000 acres, which he sold; 1835 nearly 30,000 Americans (white and some black slaves) were living in what is today eastern and central Texas; S. Austin led the “peace party” of settlers who accepted Mexican rule but wanted political autonomy for Americans in the region; “war party” wanted independence. “Remember the Alamo” – political differences continued between Americans and President Santa Ana who wanted to impose his authority throughout Mexico; March 2, 1836, “war party” began a rebellion, supported by the Americans in Texas; after Americans were defeated at the Alamo in San Antonio, newspapers published romantic descriptions of the fighting men and called for Americans to “Remember the Alamo”’; Americans went to Texas to fight under General Sam Houston; April 1836 Battle of San Jacinto led to independence; debate began in the U.S. over whether to annex Texas, desired by the people there but not President Van Buren.

I. Creating the Cotton South Planters, Smallholding Yeomen, and Tenants (By 1860 only about 25% of whites in the South owned slaves, down from 36% in 1830.) 2. Smallholding Planters and Yeomen Majority owned 1-5 slaves and less than 100 acres of land wanted more land but either couldn’t afford it or were waiting to inherit it from fathers wives of yeomen had little power, losing all legal identity at marriage women participated in Baptist and Methodist Evangelical churches at a rate of 2/1 over men white landowners in this class worked alongside slaves. 3. Poor Freemen The Settlement of Texas 1. The Austins 2. “Remember the Alamo” Creating the Cotton South Planters, Smallholding Yeomen, and Tenants (By 1860 only about 25% of whites in the South owned slaves, down from 36% in 1830.) Planter Elites – approximately 5% of white population in the South owned 20 or more slaves; “substantial proprietors” 20% of population and owned 6-20 slaves each; lawyers had wealth, either owned slaves or managed the financial affairs of those who did. Smallholding Planters and Yeomen – majority; owned 1-5 slaves and less than 100 acres of land; wanted more land but either couldn’t afford it or were waiting to inherit it from fathers; wives of yeomen had little power, losing all legal identity at marriage; women participated in Baptist and Methodist Evangelical churches at a rate of 2/1 over men; white landowners in this class worked alongside slaves. Poor Freemen – propertyless whites with no social mobility; slaveowners refused to pay taxes to fund public schools; poor white men struggled to get jobs that required labor because landowners preferred slave labor; served in slave patrols as a requirement of citizenship even if they did not own slaves; psychological satisfaction that they were “higher” than blacks in southern society; when possible, migrated to west of the Appalachian Mountains, where they hoped to establish a home/farm with family members. The Settlement of Texas The Austins – Moses Austin received a land grant and Mexican citizenship when he moved to the region after Mexico was granted independence in 1821; son Stephen followed him and received approximately 180,000 acres, which he sold; 1835 nearly 30,000 Americans (white and some black slaves) were living in what is today eastern and central Texas; S. Austin led the “peace party” of settlers who accepted Mexican rule but wanted political autonomy for Americans in the region; “war party” wanted independence. “Remember the Alamo” – political differences continued between Americans and President Santa Ana who wanted to impose his authority throughout Mexico; March 2, 1836, “war party” began a rebellion, supported by the Americans in Texas; after Americans were defeated at the Alamo in San Antonio, newspapers published romantic descriptions of the fighting men and called for Americans to “Remember the Alamo”’; Americans went to Texas to fight under General Sam Houston; April 1836 Battle of San Jacinto led to independence; debate began in the U.S. over whether to annex Texas, desired by the people there but not President Van Buren.

I. Creating the Cotton South Planters, Smallholding Yeomen, and Tenants (By 1860 only about 25% of whites in the South owned slaves, down from 36% in 1830.) 2. Smallholding Planters and Yeomen Majority owned 1-5 slaves and less than 100 acres of land wanted more land but either couldn’t afford it or were waiting to inherit it from fathers wives of yeomen had little power, losing all legal identity at marriage women participated in Baptist and Methodist Evangelical churches at a rate of 2/1 over men white landowners in this class worked alongside slaves. 3. Poor Freemen The Settlement of Texas 1. The Austins 2. “Remember the Alamo” Creating the Cotton South Planters, Smallholding Yeomen, and Tenants (By 1860 only about 25% of whites in the South owned slaves, down from 36% in 1830.) Planter Elites – approximately 5% of white population in the South owned 20 or more slaves; “substantial proprietors” 20% of population and owned 6-20 slaves each; lawyers had wealth, either owned slaves or managed the financial affairs of those who did. Smallholding Planters and Yeomen – majority; owned 1-5 slaves and less than 100 acres of land; wanted more land but either couldn’t afford it or were waiting to inherit it from fathers; wives of yeomen had little power, losing all legal identity at marriage; women participated in Baptist and Methodist Evangelical churches at a rate of 2/1 over men; white landowners in this class worked alongside slaves. Poor Freemen – propertyless whites with no social mobility; slaveowners refused to pay taxes to fund public schools; poor white men struggled to get jobs that required labor because landowners preferred slave labor; served in slave patrols as a requirement of citizenship even if they did not own slaves; psychological satisfaction that they were “higher” than blacks in southern society; when possible, migrated to west of the Appalachian Mountains, where they hoped to establish a home/farm with family members. The Settlement of Texas The Austins – Moses Austin received a land grant and Mexican citizenship when he moved to the region after Mexico was granted independence in 1821; son Stephen followed him and received approximately 180,000 acres, which he sold; 1835 nearly 30,000 Americans (white and some black slaves) were living in what is today eastern and central Texas; S. Austin led the “peace party” of settlers who accepted Mexican rule but wanted political autonomy for Americans in the region; “war party” wanted independence. “Remember the Alamo” – political differences continued between Americans and President Santa Ana who wanted to impose his authority throughout Mexico; March 2, 1836, “war party” began a rebellion, supported by the Americans in Texas; after Americans were defeated at the Alamo in San Antonio, newspapers published romantic descriptions of the fighting men and called for Americans to “Remember the Alamo”’; Americans went to Texas to fight under General Sam Houston; April 1836 Battle of San Jacinto led to independence; debate began in the U.S. over whether to annex Texas, desired by the people there but not President Van Buren.

I. Creating the Cotton South Planters, Smallholding Yeomen, and Tenants (By 1860 only about 25% of whites in the South owned slaves, down from 36% in 1830.) Poor Freemen propertyless whites with no social mobility slaveowners refused to pay taxes to fund public schools poor white men struggled to get jobs that required labor because landowners preferred slave labor served in slave patrols as a requirement of citizenship even if they did not own slaves psychological satisfaction that they were “higher” than blacks in southern society when possible, migrated to west of the Appalachian Mountains, where they hoped to establish a home/farm with family members. The Settlement of Texas 1. The Austins 2. “Remember the Alamo” Creating the Cotton South Planters, Smallholding Yeomen, and Tenants (By 1860 only about 25% of whites in the South owned slaves, down from 36% in 1830.) Planter Elites – approximately 5% of white population in the South owned 20 or more slaves; “substantial proprietors” 20% of population and owned 6-20 slaves each; lawyers had wealth, either owned slaves or managed the financial affairs of those who did. Smallholding Planters and Yeomen – majority; owned 1-5 slaves and less than 100 acres of land; wanted more land but either couldn’t afford it or were waiting to inherit it from fathers; wives of yeomen had little power, losing all legal identity at marriage; women participated in Baptist and Methodist Evangelical churches at a rate of 2/1 over men; white landowners in this class worked alongside slaves. Poor Freemen – propertyless whites with no social mobility; slaveowners refused to pay taxes to fund public schools; poor white men struggled to get jobs that required labor because landowners preferred slave labor; served in slave patrols as a requirement of citizenship even if they did not own slaves; psychological satisfaction that they were “higher” than blacks in southern society; when possible, migrated to west of the Appalachian Mountains, where they hoped to establish a home/farm with family members. The Settlement of Texas The Austins – Moses Austin received a land grant and Mexican citizenship when he moved to the region after Mexico was granted independence in 1821; son Stephen followed him and received approximately 180,000 acres, which he sold; 1835 nearly 30,000 Americans (white and some black slaves) were living in what is today eastern and central Texas; S. Austin led the “peace party” of settlers who accepted Mexican rule but wanted political autonomy for Americans in the region; “war party” wanted independence. “Remember the Alamo” – political differences continued between Americans and President Santa Ana who wanted to impose his authority throughout Mexico; March 2, 1836, “war party” began a rebellion, supported by the Americans in Texas; after Americans were defeated at the Alamo in San Antonio, newspapers published romantic descriptions of the fighting men and called for Americans to “Remember the Alamo”’; Americans went to Texas to fight under General Sam Houston; April 1836 Battle of San Jacinto led to independence; debate began in the U.S. over whether to annex Texas, desired by the people there but not President Van Buren.

I. Creating the Cotton South The Settlement of Texas 1. The Austins Moses Austin received a land grant and Mexican citizenship when he moved to the region after Mexico was granted independence in 1821 son Stephen followed him and received approximately 180,000 acres, which he sold 1835 nearly 30,000 Americans (white and some black slaves) were living in what is today eastern and central Texas S. Austin led the “peace party” of settlers who accepted Mexican rule but wanted political autonomy for Americans in the region “war party” wanted independence. 2. “Remember the Alamo” Creating the Cotton South Planters, Smallholding Yeomen, and Tenants (By 1860 only about 25% of whites in the South owned slaves, down from 36% in 1830.) Planter Elites – approximately 5% of white population in the South owned 20 or more slaves; “substantial proprietors” 20% of population and owned 6-20 slaves each; lawyers had wealth, either owned slaves or managed the financial affairs of those who did. Smallholding Planters and Yeomen – majority; owned 1-5 slaves and less than 100 acres of land; wanted more land but either couldn’t afford it or were waiting to inherit it from fathers; wives of yeomen had little power, losing all legal identity at marriage; women participated in Baptist and Methodist Evangelical churches at a rate of 2/1 over men; white landowners in this class worked alongside slaves. Poor Freemen – propertyless whites with no social mobility; slaveowners refused to pay taxes to fund public schools; poor white men struggled to get jobs that required labor because landowners preferred slave labor; served in slave patrols as a requirement of citizenship even if they did not own slaves; psychological satisfaction that they were “higher” than blacks in southern society; when possible, migrated to west of the Appalachian Mountains, where they hoped to establish a home/farm with family members. The Settlement of Texas The Austins – Moses Austin received a land grant and Mexican citizenship when he moved to the region after Mexico was granted independence in 1821; son Stephen followed him and received approximately 180,000 acres, which he sold; 1835 nearly 30,000 Americans (white and some black slaves) were living in what is today eastern and central Texas; S. Austin led the “peace party” of settlers who accepted Mexican rule but wanted political autonomy for Americans in the region; “war party” wanted independence. “Remember the Alamo” – political differences continued between Americans and President Santa Ana who wanted to impose his authority throughout Mexico; March 2, 1836, “war party” began a rebellion, supported by the Americans in Texas; after Americans were defeated at the Alamo in San Antonio, newspapers published romantic descriptions of the fighting men and called for Americans to “Remember the Alamo”’; Americans went to Texas to fight under General Sam Houston; April 1836 Battle of San Jacinto led to independence; debate began in the U.S. over whether to annex Texas, desired by the people there but not President Van Buren.

I. Creating the Cotton South The Settlement of Texas “Remember the Alamo” political differences continued between Americans and President Santa Ana who wanted to impose his authority throughout Mexico March 2, 1836, “war party” began a rebellion, supported by the Americans in Texas after Americans were defeated at the Alamo in San Antonio, newspapers published romantic descriptions of the fighting men and called for Americans to “Remember the Alamo”’ Americans went to Texas to fight under General Sam Houston April 1836 Battle of San Jacinto led to independence debate began in the U.S. over whether to annex Texas, desired by the people there but not President Van Buren. Creating the Cotton South Planters, Smallholding Yeomen, and Tenants (By 1860 only about 25% of whites in the South owned slaves, down from 36% in 1830.) Planter Elites – approximately 5% of white population in the South owned 20 or more slaves; “substantial proprietors” 20% of population and owned 6-20 slaves each; lawyers had wealth, either owned slaves or managed the financial affairs of those who did. Smallholding Planters and Yeomen – majority; owned 1-5 slaves and less than 100 acres of land; wanted more land but either couldn’t afford it or were waiting to inherit it from fathers; wives of yeomen had little power, losing all legal identity at marriage; women participated in Baptist and Methodist Evangelical churches at a rate of 2/1 over men; white landowners in this class worked alongside slaves. Poor Freemen – propertyless whites with no social mobility; slaveowners refused to pay taxes to fund public schools; poor white men struggled to get jobs that required labor because landowners preferred slave labor; served in slave patrols as a requirement of citizenship even if they did not own slaves; psychological satisfaction that they were “higher” than blacks in southern society; when possible, migrated to west of the Appalachian Mountains, where they hoped to establish a home/farm with family members. The Settlement of Texas The Austins – Moses Austin received a land grant and Mexican citizenship when he moved to the region after Mexico was granted independence in 1821; son Stephen followed him and received approximately 180,000 acres, which he sold; 1835 nearly 30,000 Americans (white and some black slaves) were living in what is today eastern and central Texas; S. Austin led the “peace party” of settlers who accepted Mexican rule but wanted political autonomy for Americans in the region; “war party” wanted independence. “Remember the Alamo” – political differences continued between Americans and President Santa Ana who wanted to impose his authority throughout Mexico; March 2, 1836, “war party” began a rebellion, supported by the Americans in Texas; after Americans were defeated at the Alamo in San Antonio, newspapers published romantic descriptions of the fighting men and called for Americans to “Remember the Alamo”’; Americans went to Texas to fight under General Sam Houston; April 1836 Battle of San Jacinto led to independence; debate began in the U.S. over whether to annex Texas, desired by the people there but not President Van Buren.

1. What message does this illustration project? (Answer: the men in the picture are portrayed as fighting bravely and gallantly, climbing ladders to repel the charge of Mexicans at the wall, waving the flag of Texas amidst the fighting.) 2. Imagine it is 1836. You are an American seeing this depiction of the fighting at the Alamo in your local newspaper. What might you conclude about the situation in Texas based solely on this drawing? (Answer: no clear understanding of the complex political situation between Mexico, the United States, and the Texans; Americans viewing this illustration might have a false sense of the military situation given that all 250 Americans who fought at the Alamo were killed.)

2. Imagine it is 1836. You are an American seeing this depiction of the fighting at the Alamo in your local newspaper. What might you conclude about the situation in Texas based solely on this drawing? 1. What message does this illustration project? (Answer: the men in the picture are portrayed as fighting bravely and gallantly, climbing ladders to repel the charge of Mexicans at the wall, waving the flag of Texas amidst the fighting.) 2. Imagine it is 1836. You are an American seeing this depiction of the fighting at the Alamo in your local newspaper. What might you conclude about the situation in Texas based solely on this drawing? (Answer: no clear understanding of the complex political situation between Mexico, the United States, and the Texans; Americans viewing this illustration might have a false sense of the military situation given that all 250 Americans who fought at the Alamo were killed.)

I. Creating the Cotton South The Politics of Democracy 1. The Politics of Taxation debate in Alabama over taxation Democrats wanted low taxes, Whigs wanted higher taxes to provide subsidies for banks, canals, roads Whigs appealed to the common people Alabama legislators appealed to slave owners who had money and power in the state 1830-1860 70% of state revenue came from taxes on slaves and land Alabama viewed as a state that taxed democratically more often, yeomen bore the burden of taxation in southern states. 2. The Paradox of Southern Prosperity Creating the Cotton South The Politics of Democracy The Politics of Taxation – debate in Alabama over taxation; Democrats wanted low taxes, Whigs wanted higher taxes to provide subsidies for banks, canals, roads; Whigs appealed to the common people; Alabama legislators appealed to slaveowners who had money and power in the state; 1830-1860 70% of state revenue came from taxes on slaves and land; Alabama viewed as a state that taxed democratically; more often, yeomen bore the burden of taxation in southern states. The Paradox of Southern Prosperity – two extremes: extreme hardship, poverty for African Americans vs. wealth and prosperity for white planters; South had a higher per capita income than France and Germany; compared to North, a lower standard of living; focus on land and agriculture, not on new technology of the 19th century: factories, machine tools, steel plows, crushed gravel roads, water and steam-powered factories were all part of life in the industrial North; urban growth in the North was limited in the South to New Orleans, St. Louis, and Baltimore; few immigrants to the South because of lack of opportunity; by 1860 84% of southerners still worked in agriculture.

I. Creating the Cotton South The Politics of Democracy 2. The Paradox of Southern Prosperity two extremes: extreme hardship, poverty for African Americans vs. wealth and prosperity for white planters South had a higher per capita income than France and Germany; compared to North, a lower standard of living focus on land and agriculture, not on new technology of the 19th century: factories, machine tools, steel plows, crushed gravel roads, water and steam-powered factories were all part of life in the industrial North urban growth in the North was limited in the South to New Orleans, St. Louis, and Baltimore few immigrants to the South because of lack of opportunity by 1860 84% of southerners still worked in agriculture. Creating the Cotton South The Politics of Democracy The Politics of Taxation – debate in Alabama over taxation; Democrats wanted low taxes, Whigs wanted higher taxes to provide subsidies for banks, canals, roads; Whigs appealed to the common people; Alabama legislators appealed to slaveowners who had money and power in the state; 1830-1860 70% of state revenue came from taxes on slaves and land; Alabama viewed as a state that taxed democratically; more often, yeomen bore the burden of taxation in southern states. The Paradox of Southern Prosperity – two extremes: extreme hardship, poverty for African Americans vs. wealth and prosperity for white planters; South had a higher per capita income than France and Germany; compared to North, a lower standard of living; focus on land and agriculture, not on new technology of the 19th century: factories, machine tools, steel plows, crushed gravel roads, water and steam-powered factories were all part of life in the industrial North; urban growth in the North was limited in the South to New Orleans, St. Louis, and Baltimore; few immigrants to the South because of lack of opportunity; by 1860 84% of southerners still worked in agriculture.

II. The African American World Evangelical Black Protestantism (West African culture remained strong among slaves because whites did not assimilate them into white culture.) Black Protestantism African-born slaves continued to worship gods and spirits ministers such as Presbyterian Charles C. Jones believed that whites should Christianize slaves some slaves were Christianized in the Chesapeake and then sold to the Deep South. Influences adapted Protestantism to their needs slaves disliked and avoided passages in the Bible that told them to obey authority without question some believed they would be liberated as the Jews had been in the Old Testament adapted music to their African roots and spiritual needs worship became “distinctive and joyous.” The African American World Evangelical Black Protestantism (West African culture remained strong among slaves because whites did not assimilate them into white culture.) Black Protestantism – African-born slaves continued to worship gods and spirits; ministers such as Presbyterian Charles C. Jones believed that whites should Christianize slaves; some slaves were Christianized in the Chesapeake and then sold to the Deep South. Influences – adapted Protestantism to their needs; slaves disliked and avoided passages in the Bible that told them to obey authority without question; some believed they would be liberated as the Jews had been in the Old Testament; adapted music to their African roots and spiritual needs; worship became “distinctive and joyous.”

Ask students to compare this image and the following image in the presentation. 1. Taken together, what insights into the lives of slaves do these images provide? (Answer: work and social life depicted; the family of cotton pickers look tired, wearing tattered, dirty clothing reflective of the manual labor. Church: provided a social outlet for slaves and their families, a sense of community; clean clothing, faces washed, provided a sense of respectability.) 2. Examine the people present in the church. What do you notice about the men, women and children attending service? (Answer: both black and white people attending the service.) 1. Taken together, what insights into the lives of slaves do these images provide?

2. Examine the people present in the church 2. Examine the people present in the church. What do you notice about the men, women and children attending service? Ask students to compare this image and the following image in the presentation. 1. Taken together, what insights into the lives of slaves do these images provide? (Answer: work and social life depicted; the family of cotton pickers look tired, wearing tattered, dirty clothing reflective of the manual labor. Church: provided a social outlet for slaves and their families, a sense of community; clean clothing, faces washed, provided a sense of respectability.) 2. Examine the people present in the church. What do you notice about the men, women and children attending service? (Answer: both black and white people attending the service.)

II. The African American World Forging Families and Creating Culture 1. African Influences by 1820 percentage of slaves born in Africa was decreasing (20% in South Carolina) regional differences were evident Mississippi Valley population had large number of slaves who descended from the Congo (West-Central Africa) shunned marriages between cousins (African incest taboos). 2. Kinship and Marriage cousin marriages were common among whites in the South slave marriages not recognized by law, although marriages did often take place in front of ministers slaves who came from Africa often gave their children African names American-born slaves chose English names. The African American World Forging Families and Creating Culture African Influences – by 1820 percentage of slaves born in Africa was decreasing (20% in South Carolina); regional differences were evident; Mississippi Valley population had large number of slaves who descended from the Congo (West-Central Africa); shunned marriages between cousins (African incest taboos). Kinship and Marriage – cousin marriages were common among whites in the South; slave marriages not recognized by law, although marriages did often take place in front of ministers; slaves who came from Africa often gave their children African names; American-born slaves chose English names. 30

II. The African American World Negotiating Rights 1. Establishing Order families and communities provided order among slaves collective unity aided slaves in achieving additional rights (“task” work in South Carolina) slaveholders feared rebellion among slaves that organized; difficult to maintain order unless a slave owner was comfortable using violence, many were not. 2. Passive Resistance slowed the pace of work feigned illness breaking tools insistence that they be sold in families burning master’s home or barn poisoning food destroying crops any of these tactics could be met with violence by masters, including rape of slaves few slaves rebelled violently (Gabriel and Martin Prosser in 1800; Nat Turner in 1832) escape was difficult for those in the Deep South escape from any plantation meant leaving family members. The Free Black Population 1. Northern Free Blacks 2. Standing for Freedom in the South The African American World Negotiating Rights Establishing Order – families and communities provided order among slaves; collective unity aided slaves in achieving additional rights (“task” work in South Carolina); slaveholders feared rebellion among slaves that organized; difficult to maintain order unless a slaveowner was comfortable using violence, many were not. Passive Resistance – slowed the pace of work; feigned illness; breaking tools; insistence that they be sold in families; burning master’s home or barn; poisoning food; destroying crops; any of these tactics could be met with violence by masters, including rape of slaves; few slaves rebelled violently (Gabriel and Martin Prosser in 1800; Nat Turner in 1832); escape was difficult for those in the Deep South; escape from any plantation meant leaving family members. The Free Black Population Northern Free Blacks – about half of free blacks lived in the North; discrimination against blacks kept them in low-paying jobs and considered socially inferior; few northern states gave black men suffrage; only Massachusetts allowed blacks to testify against whites in court; “slaves in the midst of freedom”; created strong institutions including businesses, schools, mutual-benefit societies, Free African Societies, African Methodist Episcopal Church. Standing for Freedom in the South – approx. 225,000 free blacks in slave states in 1860; mostly in coastal cities of Upper South; danger of being forced into slavery, denied jury trials, kidnapped and sold; very few free blacks owned slaves (David Barland in Mississippi owned 18); free black men were symbols to slaves of potential for freedom.

II. The African American World Negotiating Rights 2. Passive Resistance slowed the pace of work feigned illness breaking tools insistence that they be sold in families burning master’s home or barn poisoning food destroying crops any of these tactics could be met with violence by masters, including rape of slaves few slaves rebelled violently (Gabriel and Martin Prosser in 1800; Nat Turner in 1832) escape was difficult for those in the Deep South escape from any plantation meant leaving family members. The Free Black Population 1. Northern Free Blacks 2. Standing for Freedom in the South The African American World Negotiating Rights Establishing Order – families and communities provided order among slaves; collective unity aided slaves in achieving additional rights (“task” work in South Carolina); slaveholders feared rebellion among slaves that organized; difficult to maintain order unless a slaveowner was comfortable using violence, many were not. Passive Resistance – slowed the pace of work; feigned illness; breaking tools; insistence that they be sold in families; burning master’s home or barn; poisoning food; destroying crops; any of these tactics could be met with violence by masters, including rape of slaves; few slaves rebelled violently (Gabriel and Martin Prosser in 1800; Nat Turner in 1832); escape was difficult for those in the Deep South; escape from any plantation meant leaving family members. The Free Black Population Northern Free Blacks – about half of free blacks lived in the North; discrimination against blacks kept them in low-paying jobs and considered socially inferior; few northern states gave black men suffrage; only Massachusetts allowed blacks to testify against whites in court; “slaves in the midst of freedom”; created strong institutions including businesses, schools, mutual-benefit societies, Free African Societies, African Methodist Episcopal Church. Standing for Freedom in the South – approx. 225,000 free blacks in slave states in 1860; mostly in coastal cities of Upper South; danger of being forced into slavery, denied jury trials, kidnapped and sold; very few free blacks owned slaves (David Barland in Mississippi owned 18); free black men were symbols to slaves of potential for freedom.

II. The African American World The Free Black Population 1. Northern Free Blacks about half of free blacks lived in the North discrimination against blacks kept them in low-paying jobs and considered socially inferior few northern states gave black men suffrage; only Massachusetts allowed blacks to testify against whites in court “slaves in the midst of freedom” created strong institutions including businesses, schools, mutual-benefit societies, Free African Societies, African Methodist Episcopal Church. 2. Standing for Freedom in the South The African American World Negotiating Rights Establishing Order – families and communities provided order among slaves; collective unity aided slaves in achieving additional rights (“task” work in South Carolina); slaveholders feared rebellion among slaves that organized; difficult to maintain order unless a slaveowner was comfortable using violence, many were not. Passive Resistance – slowed the pace of work; feigned illness; breaking tools; insistence that they be sold in families; burning master’s home or barn; poisoning food; destroying crops; any of these tactics could be met with violence by masters, including rape of slaves; few slaves rebelled violently (Gabriel and Martin Prosser in 1800; Nat Turner in 1832); escape was difficult for those in the Deep South; escape from any plantation meant leaving family members. The Free Black Population Northern Free Blacks – about half of free blacks lived in the North; discrimination against blacks kept them in low-paying jobs and considered socially inferior; few northern states gave black men suffrage; only Massachusetts allowed blacks to testify against whites in court; “slaves in the midst of freedom”; created strong institutions including businesses, schools, mutual-benefit societies, Free African Societies, African Methodist Episcopal Church. Standing for Freedom in the South – approx. 225,000 free blacks in slave states in 1860; mostly in coastal cities of Upper South; danger of being forced into slavery, denied jury trials, kidnapped and sold; very few free blacks owned slaves (David Barland in Mississippi owned 18); free black men were symbols to slaves of potential for freedom.

II. The African American World The Free Black Population 2. Standing for Freedom in the South approx. 225,000 free blacks in slave states in 1860 mostly in coastal cities of Upper South danger of being forced into slavery, denied jury trials, kidnapped and sold very few free blacks owned slaves (David Barland in Mississippi owned 18) free black men were symbols to slaves of potential for freedom. The African American World Negotiating Rights Establishing Order – families and communities provided order among slaves; collective unity aided slaves in achieving additional rights (“task” work in South Carolina); slaveholders feared rebellion among slaves that organized; difficult to maintain order unless a slaveowner was comfortable using violence, many were not. Passive Resistance – slowed the pace of work; feigned illness; breaking tools; insistence that they be sold in families; burning master’s home or barn; poisoning food; destroying crops; any of these tactics could be met with violence by masters, including rape of slaves; few slaves rebelled violently (Gabriel and Martin Prosser in 1800; Nat Turner in 1832); escape was difficult for those in the Deep South; escape from any plantation meant leaving family members. The Free Black Population Northern Free Blacks – about half of free blacks lived in the North; discrimination against blacks kept them in low-paying jobs and considered socially inferior; few northern states gave black men suffrage; only Massachusetts allowed blacks to testify against whites in court; “slaves in the midst of freedom”; created strong institutions including businesses, schools, mutual-benefit societies, Free African Societies, African Methodist Episcopal Church. Standing for Freedom in the South – approx. 225,000 free blacks in slave states in 1860; mostly in coastal cities of Upper South; danger of being forced into slavery, denied jury trials, kidnapped and sold; very few free blacks owned slaves (David Barland in Mississippi owned 18); free black men were symbols to slaves of potential for freedom.