Chapter 11 Gender and Spirituality

© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Gender and Religiosity Religion or religious teachings play an important part in most people’s lives All religions respond to particular human needs Religious identification is just one of the ways religiosity can be measured Sex differences in religiosity

© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Goddesses and Witches Astarte, Anat, Anahita, Asherah, Attoret, Attar, & Au are names few of us recognize –Each name was intimately familiar to worshippers thousands of years ago Evidence of goddess worship is abundant and convincing

© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Goddesses and Witches Researchers speculate that as the male role in reproduction was more understood: –The appeal of matriarchal religions diminished Scholars have argued that witchcraft was a carryover of the beliefs and traditions of: –The Great Goddess religions Witchcraft

The Feminine Face of God Organized religion lags behind other social institutions in gender equality Early religions were infused with ideals of gender interdependence Early civilizations exhibit gynocentrism Partnership principle Goddess images appear in many early civilizations Goddess as creator, compassion, divine Mother

Gender Complementarity Principle of balance, neither gender was superior Chinese concept of yin and yang Buddha’s disciples, nuns and monks Native American spirituality Critique –Gender complementarity did not inevitably carry over into other social realms –Complementarity did not necessarily translate to equality

Islam Second largest and fastest growing religion Muslims vary greatly in interpretations of Qur’an Some passages condone corporal punishment for wives and place restrictions on women Woman’s key role is to provide a male heir

Feminist Views of Islam Educated Muslim women are providing different interpretations of the Qur’an Sufism contains accounts of female saints Muslim women in the U.S. may earn college degrees and work outside the home Veiling and other Islamic practices are debated by these educated women

Hinduism One of the world’s oldest religions Contradictory images of women –Hindu gods and goddesses –Women may serve in temples –Women’s main roles and rituals are in the domestic sphere of life Sati – “virtuous woman” –Burning or burial of a widow upon husband’s death –Outlawed, but still occasionally practiced

Judaism Torah and Talmud are important documents guiding belief and behavior Strict gender division of labor Men were the breadwinners, instructed their children, and engaged in religious rituals Women’s duties were domestic, requiring permission from their husbands to engage in outside activities

Judaism, cont. Woman’s sexuality was strictly controlled She was regarded as a piece of property Texts of Terror document horrific abuse of girls and women from rape, prisoners of war, to murder Currently, the Talmud is being reinterpreted to demonstrate a variety of roles for women

Christianity The world’s largest religion The Bible contains passages condoning the subordination of women but also the equality of women Christianity has typically emphasized the subordination of women Men are portrayed as warriors and leaders who are often undone by their sexual desires

Alternative Views of Biblical Women There are a range of alternative interpretations of the Bible Women were wives and mothers as well as leaders, prophets, and teachers Women were in the forefront of Jesus’ ministry Jesus has an acceptance of women that stands in stark contrast to cultural views of the time

Gender Roles and American Christians Christians make up 3/4 of the U.S. population American Protestants are divided into many denominations –Fundamental Protestant denominations are conservative and do not ordain women –New Christian Right is a fundamentalist political organization focused on sex and gender issues

Gender Roles and American Christians, cont. Issues related to sex and gender have long been controversial in the Catholic church Wide-spread sexual abuse by priests and the subsequent cover-up have provided more reasons for the ordination of women

Gender and Religious Orientation Women have a greater religious orientation than men do –Higher levels of felt need for religion –Pray and read scripture more often –Higher rates of church attendance –Responsible for religious socialization of children

Sociological Perspectives on Religion and Gender Functionalism: Social cohesion results when traditional gender roles are reinforced from the pulpit Feminism: Patriarchal structures exist in both family and church Conflict Theorists: Women’s high levels of religiosity as an opiate and false consciousness Liberation Theology

The Issue of Ordination Confucianism and Islam are the most restrictive in terms of women’s leadership Judaism has several branches ranging from Orthodox, Conservative, to Reformed –Reformed is the most liberal and ordains women

The Issue of Ordination, cont. The Catholic Church has not budged on this issue –Catholic nuns have a subordinate position to priests –Elderly nuns do not have a pension and face poverty

The Issue of Ordination, cont. Protestant Christianity’s many denominations vary greatly on views of ordination –During the colonial era, Quakers and Shakers ordained women –Other denominations become more inclusive of women in leadership roles and women’s ordination over time

Clergy Women as Leaders Clergy women are more willing to share decision making with the congregation Clergy women may adopt relational styles of leadership due to gender socialization In spite of women’s ordination, some congregations do not accept female ministers Clergy women often serve in an associate pastor roles rather than as senior pastor

Theology Male image of God makes it difficult to see women as representing God Religious language reinforces patriarchy in theology Reinterpretations of scripture –Highlighting biblical texts that demonstrate gender equity –Taking into account the historical and cultural context

Feminist Theology Liberation theology –From the perspective of the oppressed group Three views of religious tradition –Tradition is nonsexist if interpreted correctly –Tradition has sexist and nonsexist elements Sexist elements must be rejected –Tradition is sexist and must be rejected – New traditions must be created

© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Gender and Religiosity Imaging God Women as a group show higher levels of religiosity than men –Has been declining in recent years Most people in Western religions image God as male

© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Table 11.1 Religious Identification by Sex, Race/Ethnicity, and Age

© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Table 11.1 Religious Identification by Sex, Race/Ethnicity, and Age

© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Table 11.2 Gender Differences in Religiousness

© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Traditional Religious Teachings on Gender Judaism –Halakhah –Mitzvot –Tznoit –Mehitzah –Agunah –Niddah

© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Traditional Religious Teachings on Gender –Ba’alot teshuvah –Halakic –Minyan –Davening –Rosh Chodesh –Bat mitzvah

© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Traditional Religious Teachings on Gender Christianity –Christian teachings on sexuality remain mixed –It has become increasingly difficult to recruit young men to the Catholic priesthood –Women-Church movement Gay and Evangelical

© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Traditional Religious Teachings on Gender Islam –Qur’an (Koran) –Shari a (Islamic law) –Ramadan –Purdah –Chador or abaya –Hijab

© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Religion, Politics, and Social Change Evangelicals remain politically active Fundamentalist Christians interpret the Bible literally At the forefront of political opposition to feminist-supported policies and programs: –That they see as eroding morality and as antithetical to “family values.”

© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Challenges to Religious Patriarchy: Feminist Spirituality Feminist spirituality Many welcome both women and men into their traditions on the ground that: –Patriarchal religions may oppress members of both sexes through: Heterosexism, racism, and class bias

© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Challenges to Religious Patriarchy: Feminist Spirituality The rejection of the dualism of patriarchal religions Restructuring religious ritual so that it is relevant to women as well as men Resacralize Ecofeminism