Research Methods

Studying Behavior Scientifically Behavior must be measurable Methods and data must be objective Procedures must be repeatable Scientists must be able to communicate the results of experiment to others Experimenters must use an organized and systematic approach in gathering data

ETHICAL GUIDELINES Research involving human subjects must meet the following standards: 1. INFORMED CONSENT = participants must know that they are involved in research and give their consent. 2. DECEPTION = Deception may be allowed as long as it doesn’t invalidate the informed consent. Researchers must be careful about the trauma deception may cause.

ETHICAL GUIDELINES 3. COERCION = Participants cannot be coerced in any way to give consent to be in the study. 4. ANONYMITY = the identities and actions of participants must not be revealed in any way by the researcher.

ETHICAL GUIDELINES 5. RISK = participants cannot be placed at significant mental or physical risk. 6. DEBRIEFING = participants must be told the purpose of the study and provided with ways to contact the researcher about study results.

Purpose of Research To find ways to measure and describe behavior. To understand why, when, and how events occur. To apply this knowledge to solving real-world problems.

To seek Cause & Effect researchers use experimental method. Experimental method: a standardized way of making observations, gathering data, forming theories, testing predictions, and interpreting results.

HYPOTHESIS FORMULATION: EXPERIMENTAL METHOD HYPOTHESIS FORMULATION: Hypothesis = A testable prediction that expresses a relationship between two variables. Falsifiable = written in a way that someone could possibly prove it to be untrue. Confirmation bias = A tendency to search for information that comfirms our preconceptions.

EX. “Children who watch scary movies are more likely to have nightmares than are children who don’t watch scary movies.” =

EXPERIMENTAL METHOD TERMINOLOGY 1. Variables = the events, characteristics, behaviors, or conditions that researchers measure and study. 2. Hypothesis = A testable prediction that expresses a relationship between two variables.

3. Subject or participant: an individual person or animal a researcher studies. 4. Sample: a collection of subjects researchers study. 5. Population: the collection of people or animals from which researchers draw a sample. Researchers study the sample and generalize their results to the population.

TYPES OF VARIABLES Independent Variable = the experimental factor that is manipulated; the variable whose effect is being studies. Dependent Variable = the experimental factor that is being measured; the variable that may change in response to manipulations of the independent variable

Operationalization Operationalization: to put an experiment into a form that allows researchers to test the hypothesis Operationalization: Researchers put the experiment into a format that allows them to actually test the hypothesis. They apply operational definitions to the concepts in the hypothesis, which means that they figure out how to measure the things the hypothesis predicts. In the example mentioned previously, researchers would have to define “scary movie” then figure out how to show the movies to the children, how often to show the movies, and how to measure whether the children have nightmares, among other things. One step in the operationalization process involves determining the independent and dependent variables: The independent variable is the thing that is manipulated, or changed. In the example mentioned previously, the independent variable is the movies. The researchers will manipulate the number, frequency, and type of movie they show the children. The dependent variable is the behavior that the researchers are studying and that, if the hypothesis is correct, will change when the independent variable is manipulated. In the scary movie example, the dependent variable is the children’s nightmares. Other questions arise in the operationalization stage of this and all other psychology experiments. Researchers must deal with these questions in order to ensure a solid experiment. Can you think of some questions researchers should ask themselves before beginning the experiment about scary movies and nightmares? Independent variable Dependent variable

DECIDING WHO OR WHAT TO STUDY The goal in selecting a sample is that it be representative of a larger population. Random sample = a sample that fairly represents a population because each member has an equal chance of inclusion. Random assignment = assigning participants to experimental and control conditions by chance, thus minimizing preexisting differences between those assigned to the different groups.

RANDOM ASSIGNMENTS Experimental Group = Group of subjects that receives the treatment or is exposed to the independent variable. Control Group = the group that does not receive the treatment or receives a treatment presumed to be effective. (Placebo & placebo effect)

Video The Strange powers of the placebo effect

CONTROLLING FOR BIAS Experimenter Bias = the unconscious tendency for researchers to treat members of the experimental and control group differently to increase the chance of confirming their hypothesis. Double blind procedure: occurs when neither the subjects nor the researcher are aware of group placement. Subject Bias = the tendency for subjects to behave in certain ways. Single blind procedure: controls subject awareness of group assignment Confounding Variables = any variable besides the independent variable that could influence the results of the experiment.

Operationalization SCARY = ? Confounding variables Reliability Validity SCARY = ? The experiment testing whether children who watch scary movies have more nightmares than other children is actually more complicated than it seems. There are many possible variables that could confound (confuse) the experiment results. For example: How can we make sure the children’s nightmares aren’t caused by factors other than scary movies? How can we determine what makes a movie scary? Couldn’t some children find a movie very scary while other children find it neutral or even funny? How can we know for sure whether a child has had a nightmare and how many nightmares he or she has had? And how do we define “nightmare,” anyway? Try to think of other factors that might complicate this experiment. Experimental psychologists must do this in order to ensure that experiments are reliable (i.e., they can be performed over and over and always produce the same results) and valid (they actually measure what they set out to measure). What makes a movie scary? How can we tell if a child has had a nightmare? What else might cause nightmares?

TERMINOLOGY Validity = the extent to which a test measures or predicts what it is supposed to. Reliable = the extent to which a test yields consistent results. When it can be replicated it gets similar results. Confounding Variables = any variable besides the independent variable that could influence the results of the experiment.

Methods & Techniques Naturalistic Observation Case Studies Surveys Longitudinal Studies Cross-Sectional Studies

1. Naturalistic Observation Considerations: + behavior is authentic + describes what happens - doesn’t explain why - lack of control - can be very difficult Examine behavior “in the field” – natural habitat No interference

2. Case Study An in-depth investigation Considerations: One person or isolated group Considerations: + the more known, the more helpful + useful for unique, rare situations - intentional distortion, gaps, inaccuracies - research bias - may not apply to others

To describe behavior psychologist use case studies, surveys, and naturalistic observation Case studies = Study one or more individuals in great depth. The research collects data through interviews, direct observation, psychological testing, or examination of documents or records.

Correlational method expresses a relationship between two variables without stating a cause Positive Correlation = the presence of one variable predicts the presence of another variable. Negative Correlation = the presence of one variable predicts the absence of another variable. Correlations may be either weak of strong and are expressed by a number between -1 and +1. 0 means no relationship.

Correlation between TV watching and GPA

Correlation and Causation Alcohol use is associated with violence. (one interpretation: Drinking triggers or unleashes aggressive behavior) Perhaps anger triggers drinking, or perhaps the same genes or rearing predisposes both drinking and aggression. Researchers have learned that drinking does indeed trigger aggressive behavior

Correlation and Causation Adolescents who frequently see smoking in movies are more likely to smoke. (one interpretation: movie stars’ behavior influences impressionable teens) Perhaps adolescents who smoke and attend movies frequently have less parental supervision and more access to spending money than other adolescents

A college professor notices that the farther students sit toward the back of the room, the worse their grades in the course seem to be.

A survey reveals that college students who eat breakfast regularly have a higher GPA than those that don't eat breakfast regularly.

3. Survey Sampling of a population for opinions, facts, characteristics, etc. written or oral questions Target Population = whole group of study Sample = those participating in the study Random – equal chance Stratified – proportional When subjects fill out surveys about themselves, the data is called self-report data. Why can this be misleading information? Considerations: + done in relaxed, cooperative atmosphere + done by trained personnel + can gather a lot of data quickly - may not be accurate - measurement of answers may be vague - tend to generalize - wording can bias responses - volunteer bias

4. Longitudinal Study Select a group – study over extended time to assess how certain characteristics change or remain the same during development. Considerations: + accurate and reliable + allows us to study developmental issues - very time consuming - subject drop-outs

5. Cross-Sectional Study Considerations: + saves time and money + results available sooner - less reliable – diff. people, diff. experiences Not over time – but many different age groups at same time