Culture , Language and Communication

Communication Definition: The transmission of information from one individual to another.

The Ethnography of Communication Language + Paralanguage + Kinesics + Proxemics + Social Expectations + Cultural Meanings =Communication

Paralanguage Definition: The pitch, tone and cadence of speech.

Kinesics Definition: gestures, facial expressions and body language.

Phrases Three examples of types of phrases; 1. Noun phrases = a noun and its modifiers 2. Verb phrases = a verb and its modifiers 3. Prepositional phrases = a preposition, it’s object and modifiers

Noun Phrases Act as a subject in a sentence The cute little boy threw John the ball. boy + the cute little Act as a direct object in a sentence ball + the Act as an indirect object in a sentence John

Verb Phrases Is made up of the verb and its modifiers. Joan walked quickly and quietly. walked + quickly and quietly

Clauses Definition: a group of two or more words which include its own subject and predicate within the expression, but as a whole form only a part of a complete sentence

Types of Clauses Independent clauses are simple sentences Eg. Sarah patted the dog. Sarah (subject) + patted (verb) + dog (object) Dependent Clauses cannot stand alone Eg. When Sarah patted the dog, . . .

Concordance Rules (Also known as agreement) Units within a sentence must match each other Eg. Number: plural subject noun requires plural person verb

Short-Hand Symbols Syntactic Categories Subject = S, Verb = V, Object = O NP = Noun Phrase, VP = Verb Phrase, PP = Prepositional Phrase, etc. S+V S+V+O NP+VP+PP Etc.

Displaying Sentence Structure Line Analysis Bracket Analysis Chinese Box Diagramming Diagramming Tree Diagram Analysis Phrase Marker Structure

Line Analysis

Bracket Analysis

Chinese Box Diagram

Compound Sentence

Diagramming

Tree Diagram Analysis

Phrase Marker Analysis (P-marker)

Principles and Parameters Noam Chomsky’s more recent theory about grammar and how children acquire it. Principles are aspects of grammar that may have multiple parameters allowing variability in how languages address the principle. Parameters are alternatives ways to deal with a given principle.

Examples of Principles and Parameters Principle: Sentences must have a subject and a predicate. Can the subject be implied? “Pro drop” parameter options: You must have a subject present. You can drop the subject and it will be understood to be there. English: I am going to the store . Head required. Spanish: (Yo) voy a la tienda. Head optional.

Examples of Principles and Parameters Principle: The “head” of a phrase and its complements must be in linear order. “Head parameter” options: The head always comes before the complement. The head always comes after the complement. English: bought book Japanese: book bought English: in Japan Japanese: Japan in

Chomsky’s Earlier Theory

Generative Grammar Assumes two levels of grammatical structure: 1. Deep structure which is universal and underlies all grammars in all languages 2. Surface structure which represents the specific uses of deep structure elements in specific languages.

Transformational Grammar To get from deep structure to surface structure Chomsky proposed a set of rules called TRANSFORMATIONS. Deep structure Transformations Surface structure Deletions

Chomsky’s Generative Grammar Generative grammar is based on theidea that all grammatical constructions occur as a result of universal patterns and rules that can be applied to all languages. All languages DO NOT, according to generative grammar, have unique sets of grammatical rules.

Example of a Deletion Rule The dog played in the yard and the cat played in the yard. The deletion rule says that you can eliminate redundancies, therefore: The dog and the cat played in the yard. (“played in the yard” is deleted)

Structural Ambiguity Occurs when one surface structure can represent two deep structure meanings. Example: Flying Planes can be dangerous. (Surface structure in English) To fly planes Planes that are flying Can be dangerous can be dangerous. (2 deep structure meanings)

Understanding the Ambiguity Planes can be dangerous. Embedding rule Planes – planes flying – can be dangerous. Deletion rule Planes - flying - can be dangerous. Transformation rule Flying planes can be dangerous. This seems to yield the correct meaning.

Understanding the Ambiguity But there is also a transformational rule that says you can substitute infinitives for participles. Flying planes can be dangerous. Transformation rule To fly planes can be dangerous. This is where the confusion comes in.