1. Association Association JM Last: A dictionary of epidemiology 2 Statistical dependence between 2 or more events, characteristics, or other variables.

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Presentation transcript:

1

Association Association JM Last: A dictionary of epidemiology 2 Statistical dependence between 2 or more events, characteristics, or other variables. An association is present if the probability of occurrence of an event or characteristic, or the quantity of a variable, depends upon the occurrence of one or more other events, the presence of one or more other characteristics, or the quantity of one or more other variables.

זיהוי אטיולוגיה – חיפוש קשרים 3  החיפוש אחר גורמים אטיולוגים הוא החיפוש אחר סיבתיות.  על מנת שגורם יהיה גורם סיכון סיבתי, חייב להיות קשר בין חשיפה אליו לבין התוצאים המדוברים (מחלות)

Relationship between asbestos exposure (particle- years) and relative risk of lung cancer

Correlation between dietary fat intake and breast cancer by country 5 Per Capita Supply of Fat Calories

Annual mortality (per 1000 men) from all causes related to alcohol consumption

Ischaemic heart disease

Direction of Association Positive: occurrence of higher value of a “predictor” (independent) variable is associated with occurrence of higher value of the “outcome” (dependent) variable Negative: occurrence of higher value of a predictor variable is associated with lower value of another dependent variable.

9 נתרכז בקשר בין שני משתנים – משתנים דיכוטומיים בקשר חשיפה-מחלה

10 Estimating Measures of Association or Effect המטרה : להשוות שכיחותה של מחלה ( המצאות / הארעות ) בין קבוצת החשופים לקבוצת הלא - חשופים

11 מחלה +מחלה - חשופיםלא חשופים מחלה +מחלה -

12 הקשר בין חשיפה למחלה a+b=n 1 c+d=n 2 a+c=m 1 b+d=m 2

אם קיים קשר בין חשיפה למחלה אז מחלה + מחלה - חשופיםלא חשופים מחלה + מחלה -

אם קיים קשר נצפה ל: 14 שיעור הארעות בחשופים השונה משיעור ההארעות בלא חשופים אם החשיפה היא לגורם סיכון – שיעור הארעות המחלה בחשופים יהיה גבוה יותר מאשר בלא-חשופים I exposed > I non-exposed R e > R 0 R e - R 0 >0 R e /R 0 >1

אם החשיפה היא לגורם מגן 15 שיעור הארעות המחלה בחשופים יהיה נמוך יותר מאשר בלא-חשופים I exposed > I non-exposed R e > R 0 R e – R 0 <0 R e /R 0 <1

Measures of Association Difference measures: Comparison of absolute differences between groups Relative (ratio) measures: Comparison of relative differences between groups

20-year follow-up of smokers & non- smokers for the development of CHD CHD Total Smoking Incidence in total population = ??? Incidence in total population = ( ) / 8000 = 2.1%

20-year follow-up of smokers & non- smokers for the development of CHD CHD Total Smoking Incidence in exposed (smokers) = ??? Incidence in exposed + = 84/3000 = 28.0/1000

20-year follow-up of smokers & non- smokers for the development of CHD CHD Total Smoking Incidence in unexposed (nonsmokers) = ??? Incidence in exposed - = 87/5000 = 17.4/1000

Risk Difference/Attributable Risk How much of the disease can be attributed to the specific exposure? CHD Total Smoking

Incidence in exposed + = 28.0/1000 Incidence in exposed - = 17.4/1000 RD = = 10.6/1000 Among every 10,000 smokers, 106 more CHD cases develop than among 10,000 non-smokers CHD Total Smoking

Risk Difference RD > 0 = positive association RD = 0 = no association RD < 0 = negative association

Rate Ratio 23 RR = Incidence rate among the exposed Incidence rate among the unexposed במחקרי קוהורט מכיוון ששיעורי ההארעות הם מדד לסיכון ניתן לקרוא לRR גם סיכון יחסי – Relative Risk

Relative Risk or Risk Ratio Incidence in exposed + = 28.0/1000 Incidence in exposed - = 17.4/1000 RR = 28.0÷17.4 = 1.61 Risk for CHD among smokers is 1.6 times higher than among non-smokers CHD Total Smoking

25 If RR = 1 Risk in exposed equal to risk in unexposed (no association). If RR > 1 Risk in exposed greater than risk in unexposed (positive association; possibly causal). If RR < 1 Risk in exposed less than risk in unexposed (negative association; possibly protective). Relative Risk

RR tells us about the strength of association between exposure and outcome, but not about the magnitude of absolute risk (incidence)

27 Relationship between Serum Cholesterol Levels and Risk of CHD by Age and Sex: Framingham Study during 12 years.

28 Example Birth weight of offspring and maternal mortality- results from the JPS ( Annals of Epidemiology 2007 )

Odds : The ratio of the probability of occurrence of an event to that of nonoccurrence (Last, DoE) The ratio of the probability that something will occur, to the probability that it will not occur [Abramson, MSoD] Odds Ratio (or Relative Odds)

“Odds is understood intuitively only by statisticians and professional gamblers”

ODDS The odds of Epi Beauty winning the race = the probability of Epi Beauty winning the probability of Epi Beauty losing Gordis, 2008

32 אירוע שהסתברותו P, ה - odds מוגדר כ - Odds Ratio במידה וסיכוייו של אירוע הם 50 % הרי : במידה והסיכויים הם 60% הרי :  

33 Odds Ratio OR ניתן לחישוב בכל סוגי המחקר : מחקרים פרוספקטיבים, מחקרים רטרוספקטיבים ומחקרי חתך

Odds Ratio odds in exposed + = 84/2916 = 28.8/1000 odds in exposed - = 87/4913 =17.7/1000 OR = 28.8÷17.7 = 1.63 ODDS for CHD among smokers is 1.63 times higher than among non-smokers CHD Total Smoking

35 דוגמא: קשר בין גיל האם ומשקל לידה Odds Ratio

36 ה -Odds שאם צעירה תלד תינוק במשקל נמוך- נאמוד ע"י : ה -Odds שאם שאינה צעירה תלד תינוק במשקל נמוך – נאמוד ע"י : Odds  

37 בדוגמא אצל נשים צעירות - לכל 4 לידות במשקל לאמהות צעירות, יש לידה אחת במשקל של פחות מ – 2500 גרם. אצל נשים מבוגרות - לכל 9 לידות במשקל של לאמהות מבוגרות, יש לידה אחת במשקל של פחות מ – 2500 גרם. Odds

Odds Ratio 38  יחס ה -Odds ללידת תינוק במשקל נמוך בהשוואת נשים צעירות לנשים מבוגרות הוא לפיכך : OR=0.25/0.11=2.25

Prospective study (Disease OR) Ratio of odds of outcome in exposed (a/b) to the odds of outcome in the unexposed (c/d): a/bad c/dbc = Odds Ratio (OR) exposure outcome ab cd

community sample

OR in a retrospective study + Exposure - Outcome + - ab cd

OR in a retrospective study + Exposure - Outcome + - ab cd

Retrospective study (Exposure OR): Ratio of odds of exposure in cases (a/c) to the odds of exposure in controls (b/d): a/cad b/dbc = exposure outcome ab cd

44 ab c d Cases (with disease) Controls (without disease) History of Exposure No history of Exposure Odds Ratio (OR)

Odds Ratio OR > 1 = positive association OR = 1 = no association OR < 1 = negative association

46 OR-RR דוגמא I DN.D Ex Not Ex 10,000

47 OR  RR דוגמא II DN.D Ex Not Ex 100 RR = 2 OR =3 במחלה נדירה – RR, OR דומים מאד.

OR  RR when… 1.Outcome is rare because then: b  (a + b) and d  (c + d) 2.Cases are representative of all cases in the population re. exposure history 3.Controls representative of all non-cases in the population re. exposure history exposure outcome aba+b cdc+d

49 דוגמא III הקשר בין מצב סוציואקונומי והערכה עצמית של בריאות בגברים (source : British 1958 birth cohort). מצב סוציוקונומי (SES): הוגדר לפי תעסוקה – עבודה יצרנית ( צווארון כחול, פועלים ) מול עבודה לא יצרנית הערכה עצמית של בריאות (SRH): סביר ורע מול טוב ומצוין

50 RR=1.8 OR=1.9

51

52 RR=23.3%/9.4%=2.48 OR=(70*2259)/(234*230)=2.94