Mineral resources Any mineral, element, and rock that can be extracted from the ground and it has a potential value. "Minerals are naturally-occurring inorganic substances with a definite and predictable chemical composition and physical properties." (O'Donoghue, 1990). Usefulness of mining resources: Building Materials: sand, gravel, stone, cement, steel, aluminum, asphalt, glass. 2) Plumbing and Wiring: iron and steel, copper, brass, lead, cement, asbestos 3) Appliances: iron, copper, many rare metals 4) Defense equipments 5) Agricultural: fertilizers, machinery 6) Transportation means 7) Jewelry: gold, silver, platinum, diamond etc.

Type of Mineral resources: Non- metallic minerals: e.g. graphite, diamond, quartz, feldspar Metallic minerals: bauxite, laterite, haematite etc. Fossil fuels (also known as mineral fuels): the organic mineral substances that can be utilized as fuels, such as coal, petroleum, natural gas etc. The minerals and their ores need to be extracted from the earth’s interior and the process of mineral extraction is known as mining process. The mining process involves following stages: Prospecting: This is done for the searching of minerals. The searching methods includes direct analysis of minerals outcrops combined with the aerial photography, geologic maps, and structural assessment of an area. In case of indirect analysis use of geophysical methods such as gravitational, seismic, magnetic, electrical, electromagnetic, and radiometric variables of the earth. 2) Exploration: determines as accurately as possible the size and value of a mineral deposit, utilizing techniques similar to but more refined than those used in prospecting.

3) Development: It involves work of preparing access to the deposit so that the minerals can be extracted. This process involves acquiring water and mineral rights, buying surface lands, arranging for financing, and preparing permit applications and an environmental impact statement (EIS). 4) Exploitation: It involves actual extraction of minerals from the mines. 5) Reclamation: the process of closing a mine and recontouring, revegetating, and restoring the water and land values. Depending upon the ways of exploitation mines are divided into two parts: Surface mining: Open pit or open cast mining is usually employed to exploit a near-surface deposit ore. . It often necessitates a large capital investment but generally results in high productivity, low operating cost, and good safety conditions. 2) Sub-surface mining: mainly involves unsupported, supported, and caving type of mine used for mining deep minerals deposits. It is most destructive, dangerous, expensive including risks of occupational hazards and accidents.

Waste associated with mining activity:

Ore processing: Ore processing is a set of operations used to separate the mineral phases containing the useful substances from the waste gangue; the product of the plant, enriched with useful materials, is called the "concentrate". This processing can be physical and physicochemical methods such as gravity separation and flotation. It can be biological such as bioleaching or chemical such as cyaniding( addition of sodium cyanide solution to extract gold from ore) in gold ore processing. Waste generated during ore processing are known as tailings (processing waste); which can include: Aqueous solutions from cyaniding. Slurries of finely ground particles that have undergone one or more types of physical or chemical treatment, and which frequently contain one or more industrial additives that have participated in the conversion process (xanthates, salts, starch, etc.). These tailings are normally dumped in a sort of lagoon or settling basin within an embankment at the exit of the mill. Atmospheric releases from sulphide roasting including sulfur dioxide gas which is a agent for acid rain.

Indian mineral resources: India has rich mineral resource especially for metallic minerals such as iron ores, manganese, chromite and titanium. It has world largest reserves of mica and bauxite. India is the producer of 84 minerals the annual value of which is about 50,000crore. Some of the major mineral resource are: Energy generating minerals Coal and Lignite: West Bengal, Jharkhand, Odisha, Madhya Pradesh, Andhra Pradesh. Uranium: Jharkhand, Andhra Pradesh, Meghalaya, Rajashthan Other commercial used minerals Aluminum (Bauxite ore): Jharkhand, West Bengal, Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh,Tamil Nadu Iron (hematite and magnetite ore): Jharkhand, Odisha, MP, AP, TN, Karnataka Copper (Copper pyrites) : Rajasthan, Bihar, Jharkhand, MP, WB, AP and Uttarakhand

Some of the major mines in India and associated problem: 1) Jaduguda uranium mine, Jharkhand: Operation started in 1968 and the present capacity of mine is to extract and process 2090 metric tonnes per day (MTPD) capacity. It exposing local population of 50,000 to the risk of radioactive hazards. 2) Jharia coal mine, Jharkhand: Total area of 450 sq km out of which 4% of area is affected by underground fire which leads to land subsidence and displacement of people. 3) Sukinda chromite mines, Odisha: Total area of 200 sq. km., these mines provides 97% of total chromite ore reserve of country. Presence of hexavalent chromium ion in mine drainage water severly affect the aquatic ecosystem of the mining areas. It is cytotoxic, mutagenic and carcinogenic. 4) Kudremukh iron ore mine, Karnataka: The operation of Kudremukh iron ore company limited in western Ghat mountain range have caused large scale destruction of hill, pollution of surface and ground water and severely affected the kudremukh national park. 5) North-Eastern Coal fields, Assam: Mining for the coal started in 1882. The ground water and surface water sources are affected by acid mine drainage and high sulphur contamination.

Environmental problem associated with Mining: Devegetation and defacing of landscape: Top soil along with vegetation has to be removed for reaching to the mineral resource, this results into removal of forest and vegetation present in the area also results into loss of biodiversity. Subsidence of land: mainly related to the underground mining often leading to destruction of property and displacement of local habitants. Watershed disturbance: Mining activity disturb the natural hydrological process and pollute the ground water due to leaching of heavy metals and acids. Acid-mine drainage: Acid mine drainage is most serious problem associated with the mining sectors. This is normally associated with the metal ore mines and coal mines having high concentration of sulphides in ores which react with air and water to produce acidity. Air Pollution: Mining activity is also a major source of SPM, some of the coal mines release methane through cracks and opening. Mine fire also results into formation of NOx and SOx and some secondary pollutant such as ozone. Noise pollution: Mining activity involves lot of heavy machinery related to extraction and transportation of mineral ores resulting into increase noise level in the mining zones.

7) Displacement of tribal and local population: Mining activity in forested and hilly region mostly resulted into the displacement of tribal and marginalized population resulted into their rehabilitation issue. 8) Occupational hazards: Mining activity especially underground mining is associated with greater risk for the worker due to occurring of mine accidents involving collapse of mine wall, flooding of mines or mine blast associated with methane. Beside accidents longs working in the mine environment results into diseases such as asbestosis, silicosis, black lung disease etc. Case studies: Mining in Sariska Tiger Reserve in Aravallis.