Stalin and the Soviet Gulag Cris Martin Davis Center for Russian and Eurasian Studies Harvard University

Joseph Stalin

Soviet GULAG Glavnoye Upravleniye Lagerey— Main Camp Administration

Gulag Statistics Existed 1918—1987, most active during Stalin’s reign, Existed 1918—1987, most active during Stalin’s reign, camp systems, hundreds, thousands of individual camps 476 camp systems, hundreds, thousands of individual camps Estimated 18 million imprisoned, 6 million exiled (15% of the population) Estimated 18 million imprisoned, 6 million exiled (15% of the population)

Early Soviet History 1921: USSR established under Lenin 1921: USSR established under Lenin 1922: Stalin named General Secretary of Communist Party 1922: Stalin named General Secretary of Communist Party 1924: Lenin dies 1924: Lenin dies 1929: Stalin overcomes rivals to become head of USSR 1929: Stalin overcomes rivals to become head of USSR

Great Turn 5 Year Plan 5 Year Plan Industrialization Industrialization Collectivization Collectivization Dekulakization Dekulakization

Rationale behind Gulag Remove criminal elements from Soviet society Remove criminal elements from Soviet society Rehabilitation and construction of supreme Soviet utopia Rehabilitation and construction of supreme Soviet utopia Stalin’s psyche and need for power Stalin’s psyche and need for power Economy Economy

Soviet economy Free labor would benefit Soviet industrialization Free labor would benefit Soviet industrialization Prisoners were too ill, weak, underfed, untrained to be productive Prisoners were too ill, weak, underfed, untrained to be productive System became to large and far- reaching System became to large and far- reaching Gulag became financial burden despite attempts to make it more productive in the early 1940s Gulag became financial burden despite attempts to make it more productive in the early 1940s

Belomor Canal 141 miles long, only 6-12 feet deep 141 miles long, only 6-12 feet deep Basically useless for large vessels, barges, passenger ships Basically useless for large vessels, barges, passenger ships Stalin considered it a great success Stalin considered it a great success Over 100,000 prisoners died during its construction Over 100,000 prisoners died during its construction Today, only boats per day use canal Today, only boats per day use canal

Types of prisoners Criminals Criminals Political Prisoners Political Prisoners Article 58 Article 58 Other Other

Propaganda/Culture of fear “Nobody knew what tomorrow would bring. People were afraid to talk to one another or meet, especially families in which the father or mother had already been ‘isolated.’” “Nobody knew what tomorrow would bring. People were afraid to talk to one another or meet, especially families in which the father or mother had already been ‘isolated.’” ~Yelena Sidorkina, arrested 1937

The Great Terror ,000 shot 700,000 shot Kirov’s assassination led to new decrees and greater power for NKVD Kirov’s assassination led to new decrees and greater power for NKVD Claimed life of Yagoda, and Yezhov (pictured). Claimed life of Yagoda, and Yezhov (pictured).

A prisoner’s journey Arrest/interrogation/prison Arrest/interrogation/prison Trial? Trial? Transport Transport

Life in the Camps: Work Work varied by camp location Work varied by camp location Survival often depended on your job Survival often depended on your job Fulfilling the norm Fulfilling the norm Tufta, or cheating Tufta, or cheating Avoiding work Avoiding work

Life in the Camps: Food “Among the prisoners there are some so ragged and lice- ridden that they pose a sanitary danger to the rest. These prisoners have deteriorated to the point of losing any resemblance to human beings. Lacking food... they collect refuse and, according to some prisoners, eat rats and dogs. ” ~ Andrei Vishynsky, 1938 Daily rations Cauldron I: 300 g. bread, 1 liter thin soup, spoonful of groats, 1 liter soup Cauldron II: 500 g. bread, 1 liter soup, 2 spoonfuls groats, 1 piece spoiled fish Cauldron III: 700 g. bread, 1/2liter soup, 2 liters soup, 2 spoonfuls groats, 1 piece spoiled fish

Life in the camps: Weather, Violence Russian winters Russian winters Barracks Barracks Threats from criminals Threats from criminals

Sharashki: secret research and development laboratories in the Soviet Gulag labor camp system.

Aftermath 1953: Stalin died 1953: Stalin died Within 3 weeks, mass amnesty declared Within 3 weeks, mass amnesty declared 1956: Khrushchev’s secret speech 1956: Khrushchev’s secret speech Destalinization Destalinization 1951: A Day in the Life published 1951: A Day in the Life published Restalinization under Restalinization underBrezhnev

The end of the Gulag 1988: Last camp closed 1988: Last camp closed Today still little discussion of Gulag in Russia Today still little discussion of Gulag in Russia No national monument to victims and survivors No national monument to victims and survivors In 2003, Russian citizens were asked, “What role did Stalin play in the history of our country?” Positive 53% Surely Negative 33% Difficult to say 14%

Why should we care? “I wrote my book about the Gulag not ‘so that it will not happen again,’ as the cliche has it, but because it probably will happen again. We need to know why--and each story, each memoir, each document is a piece of the puzzle. Without them, we will wake up one day and realize that we do not know who we are.” ~Anne Applebaum