General Chemistry M. R. Naimi-Jamal Faculty of Chemistry Iran University of Science & Technology.

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Presentation transcript:

General Chemistry M. R. Naimi-Jamal Faculty of Chemistry Iran University of Science & Technology

فصل یازدهم: مايعات و جامدات

Intermolecular Forces and Some Properties of Liquids Cohesive Forces –Intermolecular forces between like molecules. Adhesive Forces –Intermolecular forces between unlike molecules. Surface Tension –Energy or work required to increase the surface area of a liquid. Viscosity –A liquids resistance to flow

Van der Waals Forces Instantaneous dipoles. –Electrons move in an orbital to cause a polarization. Induced dipoles. –Electrons move in response to an outside force. Dispersion or London forces. –Instantaneous “dipole – induced dipole” attraction. –Related to polarizability.

Dipole Dipole Interactions

Polar Covalent Bonds: Dipole Moments Dipole moment - Net molecular polarity, due to difference in summed charges  - magnitude of charge Q at end of molecular dipole times distance r between charges  = Q  r, in debyes (D) 1 D = 3.34  10  30 coulomb meter

Dipole Moments in Water and Ammonia Large dipole moments –Electronegativities of O and N > H –Both O and N have lone-pair electrons oriented away from all nuclei

Question Compare the dipole moment of NH 3 with NF 3, which one is more polar?

Absence of Dipole Moments In symmetrical molecules, the dipole moments of each bond has one in the opposite direction The effects of the local dipoles cancel each other

Phenomenon of Induction

Dispersion or London forces Instantaneous “dipole – induced dipole” attraction, related to polarizability.

Hydrogen Bonding

Hydrogen Bonding in HF(g)

Hydrogen Bonding in Water around a molecule in the solid in the liquid

Other examples of H-Bonds

Liquids Viscosity Surface Tension Evaporation

Viscosity ناروانی ناروانی مقاومتی است كه هر مايع در برابر جاری شدن از خود نشان می دهد. برای تعيين آن مدت زمان لازم برای عبور مايع از داخل يك لوله نازك در فشار معين را اندازه می گيرند.

Surface Tension Energy or work required to increase the surface area of a liquid.

Surface Tension

Vaporization of Liquids: Vapor Pressure

Vapor Pressure

Boiling Point جوشيدن يعنی تبخير همه مولكولها حتی مولكولهای ته ظرف و تشكيل حباب و در نهايت غل زدن مايع. نقطه جوش دمايی است كه در آن فشار بخار مايع به فشار جو مي رسد. پس نقطه جوش با فشار تغيير می كند. فشار نقطه جوش نرمال در فشار يك اتمسفر است.

Enthalpy of Vaporization ΔH vap = H vapor – H liquid = - ΔH condensation گرمای تبخير مولی مقدار گرمایی است كه برای تبخير يك مول ماده در دمای معين لازم است. گرمای تبخير مولی با گرمای ميعان مولی مساوی ولی قرينه اند.

Vapor Pressure and Boiling Point (e) (d) (c) (b) (a) Ln P = -A ( ) + B 1 T A = ΔH vap R

Clausius-Clapeyron Equation Ln P = -A ( ) + B 1 T Ln = - ( - ) P2P2 P1P1 1 T1T1 1 T2T2 ΔH vap R Log = ( - ) P2P2 P1P1 1 T2T2 1 T1T1 ΔH vap 2.303R گرماي تبخير با افزايش دما كاهش می يابد تا در دمای بحرانی به صفر می رسد. در يك محدوده دمایی كوچك گرمای تبخير ثابت می ماند. در اين صورت رابطه زير برقرار است.

انتروپی مولی تبخير قاعده تروتون (1884) تروتون انتروپی مولی تبخير براي هر مايع انتروپی مولی تبخير با افزايش دما كاهش می يابد يعنی اختلاف بی نظمی مايع و بخاركم می شود. در دمای بحرانی اين مقدار صفر می شود.

انجماد –با سرد شدن مايع حركت مولكولهاي آن كند شده و سرانجام در دماي معيني انرژي جنبشي مولكولها به حدي كم مي شود كه نيروهاي بين مولكولي مي توانند ذرات را در نقاطي ثابت نگه دارند و انجماد آغاز مي شود. –انجماد يك پديده گرمازا است و براي ثابت نگه داشتن دماي مايع در حال انجماد بايد از آن گرما گرفت. –دمايي كه در آن مايع و جامد در فشار كل يك اتمسفر با هم در حال تعادل اند، دماي انجماد نرمال است –مقدار گرمايي كه در نقطه انجماد بايد از مايعي گرفته شود تا يك مول آن منجمد گردد گرماي مولي تبلور ناميده مي شود.

جامد مايع زير انجماد نوعي جامد است كه جامد نيست!! يا نوعي مايع است كه به دماي سردتر از انجماد خود مي رسد ولي بي نظمي هاي خاص مايع را از دست نمي دهد. مثال : مواد شيشه اي, قير و برخي پلاستيكها خواص : نقطه ذوب و انجماد نامعين نقطه ذوب نرمال دمايي است كه در آن تحت فشار يك اتمسفر بين مايع و جامد تعادل برقرار مي شود. گرماي مولي ذوب گرمايي است كه براي ذوب يك مول ماده بايد به آن داده شود. گرماي مولي ذوب با گرماي مولي انجماد مساوي ولي قرينه اند.

انتروپي ذوب Cal/mol.K گرماي ذوب kCal/mol نقطه ذوب نرمال C ماده 26/544/10 آب 44/835/25/5بنزن 10/710/12/12-الكل 40/260/09/22-كربن تتراكلريد 50/1020/25/63-كلروفرم 52/65/11/11-كربن دي سولفيد انتروپي ذوب انتروپي ذوب از انتروپي تبخير كمتر است.

Some Properties of Solids Freezing PointMelting Point ΔH fus (H 2 O) = kJ/mol

Sublimation ΔH sub = ΔH fus + ΔH vap = -ΔH deposition تصعید مولكولهاي پر انرژي در سطح بلور مي توانند بر نيروهاي جاذبه بين مولكولي غلبه كرده به فاز بخار بگريزند. وقتي بين دوفاز جامد وبخار تعادل برقرار شد فشار بخار جامد، فشار مولكولهاي بخار در حال تعادل است.

Phase Changes

Sublimation: solid  gas. Vaporization: liquid  gas. Melting or fusion: solid  liquid. Deposition: gas  solid. Condensation: gas  liquid. Freezing:liquid  solid.

Phase Changes

H2OH2O

Water

Energy Changes Accompanying Phase Changes –Sublimation:  H sub > 0 (endothermic) –Vaporization:  H vap > 0 (endothermic) –Melting or Fusion:  H fus > 0 (endothermic) –Deposition:  H dep < 0 (exothermic) –Condensation:  H con < 0 (exothermic) –Freezing:  H fre < 0 (exothermic) Phase Changes

Heating Curve Illustrated

Phase changes

Phase Diagrams of Iodine Iodine (I 2 )

Critical Temperature and Pressure Gases liquefied by increasing pressure at some temperature. Critical temperature (Tc): The temperature, above it liquefaction of a gas using pressure is not more possible. Critical pressure: the minimum pressure required for liquefaction at Tc. Phase Changes

Critical Temperature, T c

Supercritical Fluids

The Critical Point

Critical Temperatures and Pressures

Phase Diagrams Carbon dioxide

Transition to Supercritical CO 2

Supercritical CO 2 Used to Decaffeinate Coffee

Crystal Structures

Unit Cells in the Cubic Crystal System bcc fcc

Hexagonal Close Packed (hcp)

Coordination Number

Counting Cell Occupancy

X-Ray Diffraction

Bragg’s equation: nλ = 2d sin θ

Cesium Chloride BCC

Atomic Radii from Crystal Structures

Sodium Chloride

Holes in Crystals

Unit Cell in Ionic Solids

Energy Changes in the Formation of Ionic Crystals

Chapter 11Questions 9, 14, 16, 20, 23, 28, 33, 34, 44, 46, 53, 58, 64, 70, 74