Myers’ PSYCHOLOGY (6th Ed) Chapter 1 Thinking Critically with Psychological Science James A. McCubbin, PhD Clemson University Worth Publishers

Thinking Critically with Psychological Science zCritical Thinking ythinking that does not blindly accept arguments and conclusions xexamines assumptions xdiscerns hidden values xevaluates evidence

Limits of Intuition and Common Sense zHindsight Bias ytendency to believe, after learning an outcome, that one would have foreseen it ythe “I-knew-it-all-along” phenomenon zOverconfidence ywe tend to think we know more than we do

The Scientific Attitude zCuriosity– a passion to explore and understand without misleading or being mislead zSkeptical, but not cynical (open, but not gullible yWilling to question any truth claim, asking for clarity in definition, consistency in logic, adequacy of evidence “Paul Kurtz” zHumility – ability to reject one’s own ideas Smart Thinking=Critical Thinking

Research Strategies zTheory yan explanation using an integrated set of principles that organizes and predicts observations zHypothesis ya testable prediction yoften implied by a theory

The Scientific Method generate or refine research and observations lead to hypothesis theories

Research Strategies zOperational Definition ya statement of procedures (operations) used to define research variables yExample- xintelligence may be operationally defined as what an intelligence test measures

Research Strategies zReplication yrepeating the essence of a research study to see whether the basic finding generalizes to other subjects and circumstances yusually with different subjects in different situations zCase Study yan observation technique in which one person is studied in depth in the hope of revealing universal principles

Research Strategies zSurvey ytechnique for ascertaining the self-reported attitudes or behaviors of people yusually by questioning a representative, random sample of them zFalse Consensus Effect ytendency to overestimate the extent to which others share our beliefs and behaviors

Research Strategies zPopulation yall the cases in a group, from which samples may be drawn for a study zRandom Sample ya sample that fairly represents a population because each member has an equal chance of inclusion

Research Strategies zIf marbles of two colors are mixed well in the large jar, the fastest way to know their ratio is to blindly transfer a few into a smaller one and count them

Research Strategies zNaturalistic Observation yobserving and recording behavior in naturally occurring situations without trying to manipulate and control the situation

Research Strategies  Correlation Coefficient  a statistical measure of the extent to which two factors vary together and thus how well either factor predicts the other Correlation coefficient Indicates direction of relationship (positive or negative) Indicates strength of relationship (0.00 to 1.00) r = +.37

Research Strategies zScatterplot ya graphed cluster of dots, each of which represents the values of two variables ythe slope of the points suggests the direction of the relationship ythe amount of scatter suggests the strength of the correlation xlittle scatter indicates high correlation yalso called a scattergram or scatter diagram

Research Strategies Perfect positive correlation (+1.00) No relationship (0.00)Perfect negative correlation (-1.00)

Research Strategies zScatterplot of Height and Temperament Temperament scores Height in inches

Research Strategies Height and Temperament of 20 Men Subject Height in Inches Temperament Subject Height in Inches Temperament

Research Strategies zThree Possible Cause-Effect Relationships (1) Low self-esteem Depression (2) Depression Low self-esteem Depression (3) Distressing events or biological predisposition could cause or and

Illusory Correlation zIllusory Correlation ythe perception of a relationship where none exists ConceiveDo not conceive Adopt Do not adopt disconfirming evidence confirming evidence disconfirming evidence confirming evidence

Random Sequences zYour chances of being dealt either of these hands is precisely the same: 1 in 2,598,960.

Research Strategies zExperiment ythe investigator manipulates one or more factors (independent variables) to observe their effect on some behavior or mental process (the dependent variable) while controlling other relevant factors by random assignment of subjects yby random assignment of participants the experiment controls other relevant factors

Research Strategies zDouble-blind Procedure yboth the subject and the research staff are ignorant (blind) about whether the subject has received the treatment or a placebo ycommonly used in drug-evaluation studies zPlacebo yan inert substance or condition that may be administered instead of a presumed active agent, such as a drug, to see if it triggers the effects believed to characterize the active agent

Research Strategies zExperimental Condition ythe condition of an experiment that exposes subjects to the treatment, that is, to one version of the independent variable zControl Condition ythe condition of an experiment that contrasts with the experimental treatment yserves as a comparison for evaluating the effect of the treatment

Research Strategies zRandom Assignment yassigning subjects to experimental and control conditions by chance yminimizes pre-existing differences between those assigned to the different groups

Research Strategies zIndependent Variable ythe experimental factor that is manipulated ythe variable whose effect is being studied zDependent Variable ythe experimental factor that may change in response to manipulations of the independent variable yin psychology it is usually a behavior or mental process

Research Strategies Comparing Research Methods Research Method Basic Purpose How Conducted What is Manipulated Descriptive To observe and Case studies, surveys, Nothing record behavior and naturalistic observations Correlational To detect naturally Computing statisticalNothing occuring relationships; association, sometimes to assess how wellamong survey one variable predictsresponses Experimental To explore causeManipulating one orIndependent and effectmore factors and usingvariable(s) random assignment to eliminate preexisting differences among subjects

Research Strategies zDesign of the subliminal tapes experiment Subliminal tape content Self-esteem Memory Self-esteem Tape label

Statistical Reasoning Our Brand Brand Brand Brand X Y Z 100% Percentage still functioning after 10 years Brand of truck

Statistical Reasoning Our Brand Brand Brand Brand X Y Z 100% Percentage still functioning after 10 years Brand of truck

Statistical Reasoning zMode ythe most frequently occurring score in a distribution zMean ythe arithmetic average of a distribution yobtained by adding the scores and then dividing by the number of scores zMedian ythe middle score in a distribution yhalf the scores are above it and half are below it

Statistical Reasoning zA Skewed Distribution Mode Median Mean One Family Income per family in thousands of dollars

Statistical Reasoning zRange ythe difference between the highest and lowest scores in a distribution zStandard Deviation ya computed measure of how much scores vary around the mean zStatistical Significance ya statistical statement of how likely it is that an obtained result occurred by chance

Does Behavior Depend on One’s Culture? zCulture ythe enduring behaviors, ideas, attitudes, and traditions shared by a large group of people and transmitted from one generation to the next