Urbanization and Mycorrhizae Investigation of impacted symbioses in terrestrial (water quality, air pollution, agricultural pest management, soil water pollution), freshwater, to the marine waters due to local development.

Mycorrhizae Fungi Mycorrhizal: form mutualisms with plants Ectomycorrhizal-form sheaths around the roots of partner plants Endomycorrhizal-invade interior root cells of host plants (also called vesicular arbuscular mycorrhizae, VAM (Stamets, 2005)(Margulis & Fester Eds., 1991)

Benefits of Mycorrhizal associations Increased length and surface area for absorption Cool fact: Absorption capacity of mycorrhizal fungi may be times greater than SA of leaves in a forest (Stamets, 2005)

II. Types of Fungi (Johnson et al., 2006)

2. Nutrient sharing (one mushroom species can connect many acres of a forest in a continuous network of cells) Link to coevolution: Possibility of fungi providing more nutrients to a tree with which it forms a better mutualistic association (positive feedback) (Stamets, 2005) (Johnson et al., 2006)

II. Types of Fungi (Stamets, 2005) Douglas Fir Paper Birch Western Red Cedar Ectomycorrhizal Endomycorrhizal Nutrient Sharing Shaded

Benefits continued… 3. Resistance to pests 4. Tolerance of extreme conditions (Johnson et al., 2006) (Bouchez & Roncho, 2008)

(Johnson et al., 2006) Benefits continued… 5. Soil aggregation 6. Reduced erosion

(Johnson et al., 2006) Benefits on different ecological scales:

Mycorrhizae and herbaceous plants: –Wild leeks (also called ramps) form mutualistic relationships with mycelium which promote leek health by: Bioremediation Increasing surface area for water uptake Changing physical and chemical properties of soil (Leyval & Binet, 1998) content/uploads/2009/04/mosaic jpg

Mycoremediation Development Problem 1: Fossil fuel emissions Fossil fuels release polyaromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) One experiment found that increasing amounts of PAHs in the soil decreased mycorrhizal colonization of plant roots The same experiment found that plants with mycorrhizal associations were able to survive and grow in soils with higher amounts of PAH than plants without these associations (Leyval & Binet, 1998) (Bouchez et. al, 1995)

How mycorrhizae bioremediate: –Mycorrhizae bioremediate through bacterial recruitment and improving soil conditions –Bacteria that are recruited can use PAHs as a source of carbon and thus break them down and detoxify them –Link to PRV: Leeks (wild ramps in the PRV) were used in this study and could help detoxify fossil fuel emissions from major highways (Leyval & Binet, 1998) (Bouchez et. al, 1995)

(Whelan & Rock, 2006)

Development Problem 2: Input of nitrates into Chesapeake Bay: – One experiment found that Paxillus involutus, a mycelium associated with Picea abies (Norway spruce) and (Betula pendula) silver birch increased nitrate assimilation (although it was affected by pH) (Andersson et. al, 1994)