Chapter Two: Explaining Winston Jackson and Norine Verberg Methods: Doing Social Research, 4e

© 2007 Pearson Education Canada2 The Explanatory Role of Theory Theories offer testable explanations for relationships in the social and physical world. The role of the social researcher is to develop, test, and re-test explanations of social relations. A theory is an explanation.

© 2007 Pearson Education Canada3 Formal Theory Set of concepts (individualism, suicide) Set of propositions: statements of relationship between variables e.g., > individualism > suicide Testability: some of the propositions must be testable (suicide rate in Spain is low)

© 2007 Pearson Education Canada4 Partial Theory A partial theory is one that attempts to account for a particular relationship by specifying a testable causal model. Use alternative explanations for a relationship Test them

© 2007 Pearson Education Canada5 Testing Partial Theories Need a relationship that is assumed to hold true, either commonsensical or from review of the literature Propose alternative explanations for the relationship Could be intervening variables, sources of spuriousness, antecedent variables

© 2007 Pearson Education Canada6 Testing Formal Theories Axiomatic derivation Axiomatically derive a testable hypothesis if > A > B and if > B > C than > A > C Replacement of terms Replacing a general term with a specific instance of it deviance replaced by shoplifting incident A = A1 etc

© 2007 Pearson Education Canada7 Levels in Quantitative Research Research in the positivist, quantitative tradition can be conceived as having three levels: Theoretical Conceptual Operational

© 2007 Pearson Education Canada8 Theoretical Level Most general level: ideas about how things are related; general predictions of behavior. Here one can work with propositions that state the relationship between variables. > A  > B > B  > C > A  > C General terms may be replaced by specific instances of terms: i.e., A = A1 or C = C1

© 2007 Pearson Education Canada9

10 Conceptual Level The conceptual level defines the variables that are to be used in the research Conceptual variable: an idea that has a dimension that can vary Gender, weight, intelligence, peer approval Conceptual hypothesis: a relationship between conceptual variables e.g., the greater the X, the greater the Y The higher one’s socioeconomic status, the higher one’s educational aspirations

© 2007 Pearson Education Canada11 Operational Level Operationalization refers to defining and executing the research protocol. It includes selecting: The indicators for concepts in the study measurement of concepts (chapter 13) The research design (chapters 3 – 7) The sampling method (chapter 15) Method of data collection Method of data analysis (chapter 8 & 9)

© 2007 Pearson Education Canada12 Linkages between Levels Validity: indicator reflects neither more nor less than that implied by definition of the concept Reliability: repeated measures will yield similar readings if the measure is reliable Discussed in chapter 13

© 2007 Pearson Education Canada13 Types of Social Science Explanations 1. Deductive explanations 2. Probabilistic explanations 3. Functional explanations 4. Causal explanations 5. Empathic explanations

© 2007 Pearson Education Canada14 Deductive explanations Explanations that show that the phenomenon to be explained is a logically necessary consequence of former explanatory premises e.g., if A=B and if B = C, than A = C Example: Durkheim’s explanation of why the suicide rate will be low in Spain

© 2007 Pearson Education Canada15 Probabilistic Explanations Explanations that are based on the likelihood of something happening are probabilistic ones. Example: If a particular boy wants to play with a truck and you say that boys like to do that sort of thing, you have given a probabilistic explanation. He wants to play with a truck because he is a member of a gender that tends to like that sort of activity..

© 2007 Pearson Education Canada16 Functional Explanations To explain the presence of some phenomenon in terms of the role it plays in maintaining a system, is to use a functional explanation. Example: The universal presence of family structures may be understood in terms of its role in population reproduction and child socialization.

© 2007 Pearson Education Canada17 Causal Explanations An explanation of an event is explained as the results of a series of previous events, that x causes y. Example: To identify possible influencing factors in program selection at university would be to identify possible previous conditions that led to the particular program selection.

© 2007 Pearson Education Canada18 Empathic explanations Explanations that give emphasis to developing an understanding of the experiences or social processes under investigation Associated with qualitative approaches to explanation and theory-building Example: Qualitative researchers would strive to understand the experience of a social group will hope that their conclusions will ring true to the participants.

© 2007 Pearson Education Canada19 The Nature of Social Science Evidence Theory is used to explain social life. Social science research anchors theoretical explanations in the evidence provided by data collection and analysis Although both quantitative and qualitative research connect theory and evidence, the approaches differ Quantitative: deductive Qualitative: inductive

© 2007 Pearson Education Canada20 Quantitative evidence Generalization an important goal (i.e., arrive at general statements to apply to a variety of social situations) Place emphasis on: Being objective (free of bias) Verifying results (confirming previous results) Controlled observations Use established research protocol Precise communication to peers

© 2007 Pearson Education Canada21 Qualitative evidence Strive to illuminate the culture, processes or experiences being studied Interpretation judged by how well the study shed light on the subject matter Emphasis on: Richness of description Interpretations which ring true to participants

© 2007 Pearson Education Canada22 Types of Flawed Explanations Illegitimate appeal to an authority Provincialism False dilemma Missing evidence Insufficient evidence Selected or suppressed evidence Unwarranted conclusions

© 2007 Pearson Education Canada23 Conclusion Research methods are debated by social scientists but many agree on the following: 1. Study the full range of social behaviour With both qualitative and quantitative approaches 2. Use the methodology appropriate to the questions asked – no one approach “better” 3. Systematic explanation – evidence-based 4. Peer scrutiny – welcome critical appraisal