Methodology Research Designs Methods or procedures section describes in detail the procedures that the researcher proposes to use to carry out the proposed study. The subsections included in the Methodology section of a research proposal will reflect the type of the study being proposed.

The Typical Subsections 1- Introduction, 2- Research design, 3- Sample, 4- Instruments, (or Instrumentation), 5- Treatment in an experimental study, 6- Data collection procedures, 7- Data analysis procedures; 8- & limitations.

introduction The methodology section of the research proposal usually begins with a one-paragraph introduction that restates the purpose of the study (and/ or the research question or questions) and lists each of the subsections that follow. The methodology section of the research proposal usually begins with a one-paragraph introduction that restates the purpose of the study (and/ or the research question or questions) and lists each of the subsections that follow.

Causal-Comparative Research The causal-comparative method is aimed at the discovery of possible causes and effects of a behavior pattern or personal characteristic by comparing subjects in whom this pattern or characteristic is present with similar subjects in which it is absent or present to a lesser degree. The causal-comparative method is aimed at the discovery of possible causes and effects of a behavior pattern or personal characteristic by comparing subjects in whom this pattern or characteristic is present with similar subjects in which it is absent or present to a lesser degree. It is sometimes called ex post facto, because causes are studied after they presumably have exerted their effect on another variable. It is sometimes called ex post facto, because causes are studied after they presumably have exerted their effect on another variable.

The Major Advantage of Causal- Comparative Research Designs is that they allow us to study cause-and- effect relationships under conditions where experimental manipulation is difficult or impossible…the major disadvantage of causal-comparative research designs is that determining causal pattern with an degree of certainty is difficult. The Major Advantage of Causal- Comparative Research Designs is that they allow us to study cause-and- effect relationships under conditions where experimental manipulation is difficult or impossible…the major disadvantage of causal-comparative research designs is that determining causal pattern with an degree of certainty is difficult.

Steps of Causal-comparative Study Formulating and testing alternative hypotheses; Selecting comparison groups; Using appropriate statistical procedures;& Properly interpreting the results obtained.