Education after 1870 Towards Universality?

The Forster Education Act School Boards set up Board members elected Money used to fund existing and new schools Places could be free for needy children Only ‘Bible’ teaching allowed in Board schools Cowper-Temple clause gave parents the right to remove children

How effective was the Act? Maintained and improved the existing system Religious division continued (re: elections, teaching, funding) Payment by results and attendance continued By 1900, 54% pupils in Board schools. London School Board built 400 schools Three times as many children educated by 1900, though many children still at work instead Increasing cost – unpopular with working class

How was the Act supported? 1873 – outdoor relief made dependent on school attendance 1876 – attendance made the responsibility of parents 1880 – attendance compulsory for children aged 5-10 (fees waived for the poor). Leaving age 11 – 1893 and 12 - 1899 1890 – payment by results in three Rs abolished 1891 – Fee Grant Act virtually establishes free elementary education

The Balfour Education Act - causes Some Boards had been spending on Secondary education. Successful case brought against London Board in 1901 Some inefficient Boards (especially rural areas) Board of Education established in 1899 Robert Morant at Board of Education Booth (London, pub. 1903), Rowntree (York, pub. 1899) Desire for ‘national efficiency’ Continued relative decline, Boer War Reactionary government? Remove power of elected School Boards and increase CofE and grammar influence

The Balfour Education Act, 1902 Abolished School Boards Established LEAs (local Education Authorities) Money from rates could be spent on secondary education Fees required but scholarships also provided Money from rates could be spent on Voluntary (Church) schools

How effective was Balfour’s Act? Numbers in secondary schools doubled from 94,000 in 1905 to 200,000 in 1914 Many LEAs set up grammar schools for able pupils Provision for technical schools also available Criticism for expense and as a ‘dangerous act of State socialism’ Middle classes benefited most

Balfour’s Act – the religious issue Huge revolt of Non-conformists – 7000 prosecutions for refusal to pay rates and 170 in prison Massive unrest in South Wales ‘Rome on the Rates’ Based on view that funds from rates used for Church schools. (Taxation had always done this to some extent) Contributes to election defeat in 1906?

Fisher Education Act - causes Collectivist/interventionist attitude Fisher at the Ministry of Education Working class vote Economic changes – decline of traditional industries beginning Failure of Balfour Act to increase Sec Ed significantly

Fisher’s Education Act, 1918 Compulsory education until 14 Elementary school fees abolished ‘No children should be debarred through the inability to pay fees’ Encouragement for continuation classes past school leaving age. Part time schooling ended Proposals required from LEAs for all aspects of education (nursery – adult education)

How effective was Fisher’s Act? 1923 – 75% of all children in elementary education Only 7.5% receiving ‘advanced instruction’ at secondary/technical schools Geddes Axe curtailed spending (£51m in 1921 - £41m in 1924) Massive extension of the scope of education – government grants to LEAs and teachers’ salaries increased

Hadow Report, 1926 Abolish elementary and replace with ‘primary’ to age 11 and ‘secondary’ (grammar or modern) to age 15 ‘Secondary Education for All…irrespective of income, class or occupation of their parents.’ 2/3 of all children over 11 in ‘modern’ schools by 1938 (plus some in grammar) School leaving age not raised in 1931 as planned

By 1939… free places up from one third to ½. Total numbers up from 200,000 to nearly 1/2m. Total spending stayed about 6% of government expenditure Local authorities doubled expenditure and paid for about 50% of education

Spens Report, 1938 Accepted principle of free secondary education and higher leaving age ‘Tripartite division’ – modern, technical and grammar Encourage ‘progressive methods’ – curiosity, exam focus ‘Widely applauded by teaching profession’ Conservative view of Board of Education and threat and outbreak of war a brake on reform

Butler Education Act, 1944 – Change? Schools monitored by LEAs and overseen by Minister for Education. All fees abolished Obligation to provide education ‘sufficient in number, character and equipment for all pupils’ Primary and secondary introduced Leaving age set to rise to 16 in future

Butler Education Act - Causes R.A Butler as Minister for Education Spens, Hadow and Butler reports Britain questioning her place in the world WW2 increases intervention Previous experience/legislation

Butler Education Act – Continuity? Interpreted so as to continue ‘tripartite’ division – a small number of LEAs set up ‘comprehensive’ education Private schools outside govt. control Built on previous practice and legislation Maintained hierarchic system RE and worship required in every state school

Education Reforms 1833 first government grant to education 1856 teacher training colleges set up 1861 payment by results 1870 Forster Act – free elementary education 1902 Balfour Act – establishes LEAs 1918 Fisher Act – free and compulsory to 14 1944 Balfour Act – primary/secondary - free and compulsory to 15