Misconceptions About Motivation 1. Some people just aren’t motivated. 2. Motivation is something you do TO others. 3. A happy worker is a productive worker.

Why is motivation important? Motivation determines effort and effort is one determinant of performance Motivated workers don’t need constant supervision Motivated workers are more likely to show up Motivated workers can provide a competitive advantage through ideas and customer service

Content Theories of Motivation - Help us understand what motivation IS - Assume behavior to be goal directed - Needs (unsatisfied) are the source of motivation - Need = an internal state of deficiency -Needs Tension Behavior to reduce the tension by satisfying the need (Homeostasis) -At certain times some needs will be more important than others.

Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs Self- Actualization Esteem Belongingness Security Physiological Need Prepotency Need Progression Premises: 5 level hierarchy

Alderfer’s ERG Theory Growth Relatedness Existence Premises: A 3 level hierarchy Need Progression Need Regression

Argyris’ Immaturity-Maturity Theory Immaturity Maturity PassivityActivity DependenceIndependence Few ways of behavingDiverse behavior Shallow interestsDeep interests Short time perspectiveLong term perspective Subordinate positionSuperordinate position

Causes of Employee Satisfaction Traditional View Dissatisfaction Satisfaction Low Pay High pay Herzberg’s Two Factor Theory Dissatisfaction Satisfaction - Hygiene +Hygiene - Motivators + Motivators

Herzberg’s Hygiene & Motivator Factors Hygiene Factors Motivator Factors PayAchievement Working ConditionsRecognition SecurityWork Itself Fringe BenefitsResponsibility Company PoliciesGrowth Potential Interpersonal Relations Supervision

Assessment of Herzberg Contributions Criticisms 1 st to argue that job contentAssumed satisfaction design was important causes motivation Advocated job enrichment asIgnored individual a motivational strategy differences. Not Easy to understand, intuitively everyone wants an appealing enriched job Explained why “more”“Method bound” hygiene factors won’t increase motivation

McClelland’s Acquired Needs Theory NeedsCharacteristic Preferences Need for AffiliationLike to work with their friends Opportunities to communicate Need for PowerControl over others Attention Recognition Personal vs. Institutional Need for AchievementLike to set own goals “Challenging” goals Like immediate feedback Like individual responsibility

Critique of Need Satisfaction Models Need Satisfaction Alternative Model Job Characteristics Need Fulfillment Needs Job Attitudes Job Behaviors Job Attitudes Job Behaviors (Objective) Job Characteristics (Imputed/perceived) Needs

Process/Choice Theories The decision to expend effort The level of effort to exert How effort can be made to persist over time They seek to help us understand the processes behind the choices we make:

Expectancy Theory Employee’s Managerial Perception Definition Question Implications Valence the perceived value Do I value the Need to identify individual of a particular rewards offered? needs. outcome to an individual. Adjust available rewards to meet those needs. Instrumentality the perceived probabilityCan I achieve the Select workers with ability. that performance will desired level of Train workers to use abilities. lead to outcomes performance? Support workers with available resources. Clarify performance goals. Expectancy the perceived probabilityWhat rewards will Communicate P R possibilities that effort will lead to I get as a result of Confirm P R possibilities task performance my performance?by making ACTUAL rewards contingent on performance.

Expectancy Theory Example Perceived Motivation OutcomesVI EForce High Salary 10.8 IBMFast Promotions 10.6 Prestige 10.5 Freq. Moves-20.9 Sum V*I High Salary 10.4 Fed.Fast Promotions 10.1 Gov.Prestige 10.3 Freq. Moves-20.3 Sum V*I

Expectancy Theory PerceptionsReality Effort Perf. Rewards E I V

Reasoning Behind Goal Setting Directionspecific goals direct your focus to relevant activities. Effortneed to devote more intense levels of effort toward difficult goals Persistencespecific, difficult goals encourage you to persist longer at a task than would be the case with less difficult or vague goals.

A Model of Goal Setting Performance Goal Intentions Past Performance Goal Setting Process Assigned Participative Goal Content Specificity Difficulty Knowledge of Goal Goal Results Attributes Aspirations Outcomes +

Goal Difficulty Controversy Goal Setting Theory N Ach Expectancy Theory HHH MMM LLL Easy Medium Hard Easy Medium Hard Easy Medium Hard Goal Difficulty Goal Difficulty Goal Difficulty PERFOMANCEPERFOMANCE

A Modified Model of Goal Setting Past Performance Goal Intentions Performance Goal Content Specificity Difficulty Goal Setting Process Assigned Participative Individual Differences Personality (Self efficacy) Needs (N Ach) Cognitions (attributions) Perceptions (expectancies)

The Role of Incentives Performance Level Low High Perceived Goal Difficulty EasyHard Piecerate bonus

Criticisms of Goal Setting Difficult to Sustain Works best on simple jobs Encourages Game-Playing Another Control Device Can become an obsession (Means-end reversal)

Equity Theory Perceptions 1. Perceptions of outcomes received 2. Perceptions of inputs required 3. Perceptions of the outcomes and inputs of a “Referent” other O I O O I I I O = Equity O I O O O I I I I O I I < > O I O or Inequity O/I Under RewardOver Reward

Equity Theory Reactions EquityInequity Motivation toMotivation to reduce maintain currentinequity: situation 1. Change inputs 2. Change outcomes 3. Alter perceptions of self 4. Alter perceptions of other 5. Change referent other 6. Leave the situation

Equity Sensitivity Under Reward Equity Over Reward Satisfaction High Low Entitleds Benevolents Equity Sensitives

Justice Perceptions Distributive Justice Procedural Justice Interactive Justice

A Perspectives Approach to Motivation Motivation Questions What is it? How does it work? (Content Theories) (Process Theories) Maslow’s HierarchyExpectancy Theory Alderfer’s ERG TheoryEquity Theory Herzberg’s 2 Factory TheoryGoal Setting Theory McClelland’s Learned Needs Rational Economic TheoryReinforcement Theory Scientific Management Internal External Location of the Prime Mover

Questions Approach to Motivation Theory 1.What energizes behavior? 2.What channels energized behavior? 3.How can one maintain energized behavior?

An Integrated Model of Motivation Individual FactorsEnvironmental Factors Needs Tension Energized Effort AlternativeAssociated ActionsOutcomes1.2.3.Etc. Selection of an alternative Effort Ability Role Perceptions Actual Actual PerformanceRewards Equity Perceptions Satisfaction

Implications of Motivation Theory for Managers 1. Managers can influence employee motivation. 2. Motivation is not the ONLY cause of performance. 3. Some factors managers have control over, others they do not. 4. Managers who fail to discriminate have no power. 5. Managers need to diagnose the cause of low performance before taking action. 6. Establishing goals to direct behavior is important to any motivation program. 7. Rewards can be a powerful tool, IF...

Typical Reasons Why Workers Fail to Perform Reason Potential Managerial Problem 1. Doesn’t understandInability to impart public knowledge directions(poor communicator) 2.Lacks abilitySelection, transfer, termination problem 3.Dislikes the workSelection, placement or job design problem 4.Rewards are not viewedLack of understanding of needs of as rewards workforce; or satisfaction problem 5.No relationship betweenLack of discrimination problem work output and rewards 6.Employees are in a Working from the value system of the different career stage than manager rather than from the manager subordinate’s value system