#include pthread_mutex_t sem_mut = PTHREAD_MUTEX_INITIALIZER; pthread_mutex_t cond_mut = PTHREAD_MUTEX_INITIALIZER; pthread_cond_t cond = PTHREAD_COND_INITIALIZER; pthread_t tip ; pthread_t tip1 ; int rander ; void *sender(void *) ; void *receiver(void *) ; sem_t sema_dude ; main() { rander = rand() % 10 ; //returns random num between printf("Rander is %d\n", rander) ; sleep(rander) ; sem_init(&sema_dude, 0, 0); pthread_create(&tip, NULL, sender, NULL) ; pthread_create(&tip1, NULL, receiver, NULL) ; pthread_join(tip, NULL); pthread_join(tip1, NULL) ; }

void *sender (void *param) {printf("Hello world!!\n") ; sem_wait(&sema_dude) ; printf("Im back\n") ; } void *receiver (void *param) {printf("Hello from ME!\n") ; sleep(2) ; sem_post(&sema_dude) ; }

gcc try_sem.c -lpthread -lposix4 //on gandalf (g)cc try_sem.c –lpthread //most Linux systems

Random Number Generator #include int rand() //returns a random integer, not double int my_rand = rand() % 20 ; //returns a random int between 0 and 19

Page 240: sem_t sem mutex incorrect. sem_t mutex ; while (true) { sleep(….) ; rand = rand() ; …… } while (true) {sleep_time = rand() % 10 ; sleep(sleep_time) ; ……………..}

Background Virtual memory – separation of user logical memory from physical memory. Only part of the program needs to be in memory for execution. Logical address space can therefore be much larger than physical address space. Allows address spaces to be shared by several processes. Allows for more efficient process creation. Virtual memory can be implemented via: Demand paging Demand segmentation

Shared Library Using Virtual Memory

Demand Paging Bring a page into memory only when it is needed. Less I/O needed Less memory needed Faster response More users (higher level of multiprogramming) Page is needed  reference to it invalid reference  abort not-in-memory  bring to memory

Page Table When Some Pages Are Not in Main Memory

Page Fault If there is ever a reference to a page, first reference will trap to OS  page fault OS decides: Invalid reference  abort. Just not in memory. Get empty frame.

Page Fault Get empty frame. Swap page into frame. Reset tables, validation bit = 1. Restart instruction

Steps in Handling a Page Fault

What happens if there is no free frame? Page replacement – find some page in memory, but not really in use, swap it out. algorithm performance – want an algorithm which will result in minimum number of page faults. Same page may be brought into memory several times.

Page Replacement Use modify (dirty) bit to reduce overhead of page transfers – only modified pages are written to disk. Page replacement completes separation between logical memory and physical memory – large virtual memory can be provided on a smaller physical memory.

Basic Page Replacement 1. Find the location of the desired page on disk. 2. Find a free frame: - If there is a free frame, use it. - If there is no free frame, use a page replacement algorithm to select a victim frame. 3. Read the desired page into the (newly) free frame. Update the page and frame tables. 4. Restart the process.

Page Replacement Algorithms Want lowest page-fault rate. Evaluate algorithm by running it on a particular string of memory references (reference string) and computing the number of page faults on that string. In examples, the reference string is: 7,0,1,2,0, 3,0,4,2,3, 0,3,2,1,2,0,1,7,0,1

Optimal Algorithm Replace page that will not be used for longest period of time. Used for measuring how well your algorithm performs.

Optimal Page Replacement

First-In-First-Out Throw out the page that has been in memory the longest. Good when talking about a set of pages for initialization. Bad when talking about heavily used variable.

FIFO Page Replacement

Least Recently Used (LRU) Algorithm Based on principal of “Locality of Reference”. A page that has been used in the near past is likely to be used in the near future. LRU: Determine the least recently used page in memory and evict it. Can be done but very expensive.

LRU Page Replacement

Second Chance Approximations Add a “reference” bit to page table. Set to 1 when page is accessed. Set of “second chance” algorithms that use the reference bit in page table entry to determine if it has been recently used. Example: Clock Page Replacement Algorithm.

Second-Chance (clock) Page-Replacement Algorithm

Other Software Approximations to LRU Not Frequently Used (NFU). Associate a software counter with each page. On timer interrupt, OS scans all pages in memory. For each page, the R bit (Referenced bit)is added to the counter. Page with lowest count is evicted.

Problem with NFU It never forgets. A page referenced often in earlier phases of the program may not be evicted long after it has been used. Would like to have an algorithm that “ages” the count. That is, the latest references should be the most important.

Aging Algorithm for Simulating LRU On each timer interrupt scan the pages to get the R bit. Shift right one bit of the counter. Place the R bit in the leftmost bit of the counter. Choose the page to evict that has the lowest count.

Example Assume all counters are currently 0. Consider the case when pages 0,2,4, and 5 are referenced between last interrupt.

Simulating LRU in Software The aging algorithm simulates LRU in software

Simulating LRU in Software The aging algorithm simulates LRU in software Assume references 0,1, and 4 next window.

Simulating LRU in Software The aging algorithm simulates LRU in software

Simulating LRU in Software The aging algorithm simulates LRU in software Assume 0,1,3,5

Simulating LRU in Software The aging algorithm simulates LRU in software

Allocation of Frames Each process needs minimum number of pages. Two major allocation schemes. fixed allocation Variable allocation. Replacement Scope can be: Local. Global.

Fixed Allocation, Local Scope Number of pages per process is fixed based on some criteria. Can use equal allocation or proportional allocation. Equal allocation – e.g., if 100 frames and 5 processes, give each 20 pages. What are the drawbacks of equal allocation?

Fixed Allocation, Local Scope Proportional Allocation Allocate number of pages based on the size of the process. Problem?

Fixed Allocation, Local Scope Equal allocation – e.g., if 100 frames and 5 processes, give each 20 pages. What are the drawbacks of this approach? Allocation may be too small causing significant paging. Allocation may too large reducing number of processes in memory and wasting memory that could be used by other processes.

Fixed Allocation, Local Scope Proportional Allocation Allocate pages based on the size of the process. Problem? Process needs will vary over its execution leading to the same problems as equal-size pages.

Problem with Fixed Allocation Schemes All processes treated the same. No priorities. Can use process priority rather than size to allocate frames.

Variable Allocation, Global Replacement When a page fault occurs, new page frame allocated to the process. Page replacement based on previous approaches: e.g., LRU, FIFO, etc. No consideration of which process should (or can best afford) to lose a page. Can lead to high page-fault rates.

Thrashing If a process does not have “enough” pages, the page-fault rate is very high. This leads to: low CPU utilization. operating system thinks that it needs to increase the degree of multiprogramming. another process added to the system. Thrashing  a process is busy swapping pages in and out.

Thrashing

Locality In A Memory-Reference Pattern

Working-Set Model: Local Scope, Variable Allocation   working-set window  a fixed number of page references Example: 10,000 instruction WSS i (working set of Process P i ) = total number of pages referenced in the most recent  (varies in time) if  too small will not encompass entire locality. if  too large will encompass several localities. if  =   will encompass entire program. D =  WSS i  total demand frames if D > m (memory)  Thrashing Policy if D > m, then suspend one of the processes.

Working-set model

Page-Fault Frequency Scheme Establish “acceptable” page-fault rate. If actual rate too low, process loses frame. If actual rate too high, process gains frame.

Other Considerations Prepaging: Predicting future page requests. Page size selection fragmentation table size I/O overhead

Other Considerations TLB Reach - The amount of memory accessible from the TLB. TLB Reach = (TLB Size) X (Page Size) Ideally, the working set of each process is stored in the TLB.

Increasing the Size of the TLB Increase the Page Size. This may lead to an increase in fragmentation as not all applications require a large page size. Provide Multiple Page Sizes. This allows applications that require larger page sizes the opportunity to use them without an increase in fragmentation.

Other Considerations I/O Interlock – Pages must sometimes be locked into memory. Consider I/O. Pages that are used for copying a file from a device must be locked from being selected for eviction by a page replacement algorithm.

Windows NT Uses demand paging with clustering. Clustering brings in pages surrounding the faulting page. Processes are assigned working set minimum and working set maximum. Working set minimum is the minimum number of pages the process is guaranteed to have in memory.

Windows NT A process may be assigned as many pages up to its working set maximum. When the amount of free memory in the system falls below a threshold, automatic working set trimming is performed to restore the amount of free memory. Working set trimming removes pages from processes that have pages in excess of their working set minimum.