Second Exam Thursday Chapters 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, and 15 (most) Can humans share spaceship earth? Why Can't We Humans Share Spaceship Earth? The Vanishing Book of Life on Earth Watch Average Temperatures 1884-2012 Global Warming Watch Domino Effects Also Handouts 5, 6, and 7 Intelligent Design? Space Travel Agriculture Economics

~ ~ ~ ~ Kc = 160 Kb = 125 Nc* = 70 Nb* = 30 Nc* = Kc – acb Nb* acb = (Kc – Nc*)/ Nb* = (160 – 70)/30 = 90/30 = 3.00 Nb* = Kb – abc Nc* abc = (Kb – Nb*)/ Nc* = (125 – 30)/70 = 95/70 = 1.357

Experimental Ecology Controls, replicates, treatments, pseudoreplication Marine rocky intertidal, space-limited systems Joe Connell, barnacles, Balanus and Chthamalus Bob Paine, mindless experiments, Pisaster removal, keystone predator Bruce Menge, removal + addition experiment with sea stars Art Dunham, Big Bend Grapevine hills, lizard removal experiments Jim Brown, New Mexico seed eating ants and rodents 2 replicates for each of 12 treatments (including 11 manipulations plus 2 controls). Short term: ants and rodents compete for seeds Large seeded plants versus small seeded plants Long term: indirect mutualism, facilitation between ants and rodents Simberloff and Wilson’s defaunation experiments in Florida keys Non-interactive, interactive, assortative, and evolutionary equilibria

Predation Skutch’s naïve group selection perspective Peregrine falcon and starling flocks Frazzetta’s snake strike 3/100ths of a second Holling’s preying mantids Lotka-Volterra Predation Equations

“The recognition that animals can hold their rate of reproduction below the maximum that is possible for them throws fresh light upon that most hideous blot on the fair face of nature, predation, the killing and devouring of one creature by another. It is well known that if predators are suddenly removed, the animals on which they preyed may become so numerous that they exhaust their food supply, with tragic conse- quences not only to themselves but to other associated animals. This is particularly striking in the case of large herbivores which, in the absence of checks upon their increase, may so overbrowse or overgraze their range that, even after their removal it takes years to recover. Hence predation is frequently regarded as a blessing in disguise, necessary to preserve the health and balance of a natural community. But, if animals can adjust their reproduction to the mortality of their species, it follows that, if they were not subject to predation, they would breed more slowly. The predators themselves, by creating a need for more rapid multiplication, are responsible for the production of the individuals that they slaughter. If predation had never arisen,”

“Predators would not be necessary to prevent overpopulation. Predation, including its subtle form, parasitism, is a tragic miscarriage of evolution. It is responsible for some of the worst passions that afflict that long term predator, man, and through them for a large share of the evils from which we suffer.* ———————————————————————————— *I write in full awareness of the influence that the predatory habit in all its manifold forms, itself a product of evolution, has had upon subsequent evolution, speeding it up and increasing the diversity of living creatures, many of which are far from admirable. However, predation is only one of many selective agents, some of which, even if acting more slowly, might have had more benign effects. I like to think that on other planets, revolving around distant stars, gentler methods have brought life to fulfillment,and I would love to see the results.” From A. F. Skutch, “A Naturalist in Costa Rica”

Predation and Parasitism

Predation and Parasitism Adaptive Geometry of a Selfish Herd (W. D. Hamilton)

“Adaptive Geometry of a Selfish Herd”

400 Frames per second (3/100ths of a second) Thomas Frazzetta 400 Frames per second (3/100ths of a second)

C. S. Holling

C. S. Holling

Gause’s Predator-Prey Experiments Georgi F. Gause

Gause’s Predator-Prey Experiments Georgi F. Gause

Gause’s Predator-Prey Experiments Georgi F. Gause

Industrial Melanism Numbers of Typical and Melanic Marked Moths (Biston betularia) Released and Recaptured in a Polluted Woods Near Birmingham and an Unpolluted Woods Near Dorset* __________________________________________________________ Polluted Woods Unpolluted Woods Numbers of marked moths released Typical 64 496 Melanic 154 473 Number of moths recaptured Typical 16 (25%) 62 (12.5%) Melanic 82 (53%) 30 (6.3%) * The wild population in the polluted woods was 87% melanic. Source: From data of Kettlewell (1956).

Lotka-Volterra. Predation Equations Lotka-Volterra Predation Equations coefficients of predation, p1 and p2 dN1 /dt = r1 N1 – p1 N1 N2 dN2 /dt = p2 N1 N2 – d2 N2 No self damping (no density dependence) dN1 /dt = 0 when r1 = p1 N2 or N2 = r1 / p1 dN2 /dt = 0 when p2 N1 = d2 or N1 = d2 / p2 Alfred J. Lotka Vito Volterra

“Neutral Stability”

Functional response = rate at which Individual predators capture and eat more prey per unit time as prey density increases C. S. Holling

Numerical response = increased prey density raises the predator’s population size and a greater number of predators consume An increased number of prey

Mike Rosenzweig Robert MacArthur

Mike Rosenzweig Robert MacArthur

Moderately efficient predator <—Mike Rosenzweig Robert MacArthur —> Moderately efficient predator Neutral stability — Vectors form a closed ellipse. Amplitude of oscillations remains constant.

Unstable — extremely efficient predator Robert MacArthur —> Mike Rosenzweig Unstable — extremely efficient predator Vectors spiral outwards until a Limit Cycle is reached

Damped Oscillations — inefficient predator Robert MacArthur —> Mike Rosenzweig Damped Oscillations — inefficient predator Vectors spiral inwards to stable equilibrium point

“Prudent” Predation and Optimal Yield Feeding territories Consequence of senescence

Predator Escape Tactics. Aspect Diversity Predator Escape Tactics Aspect Diversity Cryptic coloration (countershading) Disruptive coloration Flash coloration Eyespots, head mimicry Warning (aposematic) coloration Alarm signals Hawk alarm calls Selfish callers Plant secondary chemicals

Head Mimicry Papilio caterpillar Pit Viper caterpillar DeVries Snake head

Selfish caller Hypotheses. 1. Full up “I see you”. 2. Mass pandemonium Selfish caller Hypotheses 1. Full up “I see you” 2. Mass pandemonium 3. Keep on moving 4. Mixed species flocks, fake alarm calls

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