Chapter 10 Sex and Gender

Chapter Outline Sex: The Biological Dimension Gender: The Cultural Dimension Gender Stratification in Historical and Contemporary Perspective Gender and Socialization Contemporary Gender Inequality Perspectives on Gender Stratification Gender Issues in the Future

 Sex and Gender Sex refers to the biological and anatomical differences between females and males. Gender refers to the culturally and socially constructed differences between females and males.

Sex: The Biological Dimension At birth, males and females are distinguished by primary sex characteristics. Occasionally, a hormone imbalance produces a hermaphrodite - a person with a combination of male and female genitalia. Western societies acknowledge two sexes; other societies recognize three - men, women, and berdaches, males who behave, dress, work,and are treated as women.

Gender: The Cultural Dimension Most “sex differences” are socially constructed “gender differences”. Gender is embedded in the images, ideas, and language of a society. Gender is used as a means to divide up work, allocate resources, and distribute power.

Sexism Subordination of one sex based on the assumed superiority of the other sex. Sexism directed at women has three components: Negative attitudes toward women. Stereotypical beliefs that reinforce, complement, or justify the prejudice. Discrimination - acts that exclude, distance, or keep women separate.

Gender Stereotypes Hold that men and women are different in attributes, behavior and aspirations. Men: strong, rational, dominant, independent, less concerned with appearance. Women: weak, emotional, nurturing, dependent, anxious about appearance.

Technoeconomic Bases of Society Hunting and Gathering Horticultural and Pastoral Agrarian Change from Prior Society — Use of hand tools. Use of animal-drawn plows and equipment Economics Hunting game, gathering roots and berries. Planting crops, domestication of animals. Labor-intensive farming Control of Surplus None Men who begin to control societies Men who own land or herds

Technoeconomic Bases of Society Hunting and Gathering Horticultural and Pastoral Agrarian Inheritance None Shared—patrilineal and matrilineal Patrilineal Control Over Procreation Increasingly by men Men -to ensure Legitimacy. Women’s Status Relative equality Decreasing in move to pastoralism Low

Technoeconomic Bases of Society Industrial Postindustrial Change from Prior Society Invention of steam engine Invention of computer and development of“high-tech” society. Economics Mechanized production of goods Information and service economy Control of Surplus Men who own means of production Corporate shareholders and high-tech entrepreneurs.

Technoeconomic Bases of Society Industrial Postindustrial Inheritance Bilateral Control Over Procreation Men—but less so in later stages Mixed Women’s Status Low Low Varies by class, race, and age.

Gendered Division of Labor Three factors: Type of subsistence base. Supply of and demand for labor. The extent to which women's child-rearing activities are compatible with certain types of work.

Increase in Single Mothers Between 1990 and 2000, the number of U.S. families headed by single mothers increased by 25%. A single mother is defined as a widowed, divorced, separated, or never married woman who has children under 18 living at home. This increase may indicate that “traditional” households are in decline.

Parents and Gender Socialization Children's clothing and toys reflect their parents' gender expectations. Children are often assigned household tasks according to gender.

Peers and Gender Socialization Peers help children learn gender‑appropriate and inappropriate behavior. During adolescence, peers often are more effective at gender socialization than adults. College student peers play an important role in career choices and the establishment of long term, intimate relationships.

Schools and Gender Socialization Teachers provide messages about gender through classroom assignments and informal interactions with students. Teachers may unintentionally show favoritism toward one gender over the other.

Sports and Gender Socialization From elementary school through high school: Boys play football. Girls are cheerleaders, members of the drill team, and homecoming queens. For many males, sports is a training ground for masculinity.

Mass Media and Gender Socialization On television: Male characters typically are more aggressive, constructive, and direct. Females are deferential toward others or use manipulation to get their way.

Percent of Women, African Americans, and Hispanics in Selected Occupations All occupations 46.2 11.1 10.1 Managerial, professional specialty (all) 49.0 7.6 5.0 Technical, sales, and administrative support (all) 64.2 8.3 Service occupations (all) 59.5 17.6 15.0 Operators, fabricators, and laborers 24.6 15.7 16.0

The Wage Gap Women’s wages are always lower than those of men in the same age group. The older women get, the greater the gap. Women ages 15–24 earn 80 cents for every dollar earned by men the same age. Women ages 55–64 earn only 45 cents for every dollar earned by men ages 55–64.

The Wage Gap White men earn more than African American and Hispanic men. Across racial–ethnic groupings, men’s earnings remain higher than the earnings of women in the ethnic grouping. Regardless of occupation, women on average receive lower wages.