1 Psychology 2020 Unit 1 Science, Research & Ethics

2 The Science of Psychology Psychology is a very broad subject that covers: Psychology is a very broad subject that covers: Human behaviorHuman behavior Nonhuman behaviorNonhuman behavior Physiological processes and structures related to behaviorPhysiological processes and structures related to behavior Conceptual processes used to explain behaviorConceptual processes used to explain behavior A scientific approach is used in Psychology to advance our knowledge of the subject matter. A scientific approach is used in Psychology to advance our knowledge of the subject matter.

3 Scientific and Nonscientific Approaches Scientific approaches emphasize gaining knowledge through direct observation and experimentation. Scientific approaches emphasize gaining knowledge through direct observation and experimentation. This is the “empirical” approachThis is the “empirical” approach Nonscientific approaches rely on intuition, inference, hearsay etc. rather than direct observation and experimentation. Nonscientific approaches rely on intuition, inference, hearsay etc. rather than direct observation and experimentation.

4 Scientific and Nonscientific Approaches Scientific approaches are skeptical and critical and emphasize the following in their data collection methods: Scientific approaches are skeptical and critical and emphasize the following in their data collection methods: Systematic and controlled observationsSystematic and controlled observations Accurate and precise measuring instruments that produce valid and reliable measurementsAccurate and precise measuring instruments that produce valid and reliable measurements Testable hypotheses involving clear, operationally defined termsTestable hypotheses involving clear, operationally defined terms Unbiased and objective reports of research findingsUnbiased and objective reports of research findings

5 Scientific and Nonscientific Approaches Nonscientific approaches are accepting and uncritical. They often involve Nonscientific approaches are accepting and uncritical. They often involve Casual, uncontrolled observationsCasual, uncontrolled observations Inaccurate and imprecise measuring instruments that produce invalid and unreliable measurementsInaccurate and imprecise measuring instruments that produce invalid and unreliable measurements Untestable hypotheses involving ambiguous termsUntestable hypotheses involving ambiguous terms Biased and subjective reports of the phenomena being studied.Biased and subjective reports of the phenomena being studied.

6 The Advantages of using a Scientific Approach in Psychology The scientific method provides specific rules for gathering, reporting and evaluating information. The scientific method provides specific rules for gathering, reporting and evaluating information. This method encourages objectivity through replication. This method encourages objectivity through replication.

7 Goals of Science Description of behavior Description of behavior Number of questions answered.Number of questions answered. Prediction of behavior Prediction of behavior Good language skills predicts greater success in school.Good language skills predicts greater success in school. Determining Causes of behavior Determining Causes of behavior Pulling the lever produces $100.Pulling the lever produces $100. Explanation of behavior Explanation of behavior Mental retardation often results from genetic abnormalities.Mental retardation often results from genetic abnormalities.

8 Practice Questions Three of the goals of science are to describe, predict and explain behavior. Label each of the following a either Description, Prediction or Explanation: Plants that are played music will grow more than plants that are not played music. Differences in assigned guilt ratings between attractive and unattractive defendants are due to a physical attractiveness stereotype. Alcohol consumption decreases a driver’s reaction time.

9 Determination of Cause Temporal precedence Temporal precedence The causal event must come before the event it causes.The causal event must come before the event it causes. Covariation of cause and effect Covariation of cause and effect When the causal event is present we see the effect more often than not.When the causal event is present we see the effect more often than not. Alternative explanations have been eliminated. Alternative explanations have been eliminated. It has been determined that nothing other than the causal event could be responsible for the observed effect.It has been determined that nothing other than the causal event could be responsible for the observed effect.

10 Types of Research Basic Research Basic Research Asks fundamental questions about the nature of the subject.Asks fundamental questions about the nature of the subject. Empirically tests key theoretical conceptsEmpirically tests key theoretical concepts Applied Research Applied Research Asks questions related to practical problems.Asks questions related to practical problems. Empirically tests and/or evaluates potential solutions.Empirically tests and/or evaluates potential solutions.

11 Steps to Doing Research 1. Review the theory and research related to an area of interest. 2. Formulate a hypothesis. 3. Design a study to test the hypothesis and make a prediction about the outcome of the study.

12 Steps to Doing Research 4. Conduct the study and collect the necessary data. 5. Evaluate the data in terms of the prediction and the hypothesis. 6. Adjust the theory as needed based on the new data and report your findings.

13 Initial Stages of Research Almost all research begins with some form of a question. Almost all research begins with some form of a question. I wonder if writing summary notes of reading assignments facilitates the understanding of what was read?I wonder if writing summary notes of reading assignments facilitates the understanding of what was read? The questions are then restated as a research hypothesis The questions are then restated as a research hypothesis Summarization of complex information facilitates understanding of that information.Summarization of complex information facilitates understanding of that information.

14 The Research Hypothesis A research hypothesis is a tentative statement about a relationship between two or more variables. A research hypothesis is a tentative statement about a relationship between two or more variables. Examples of hypotheses: Examples of hypotheses: Defendant attractiveness will influence jury decisionsDefendant attractiveness will influence jury decisions Children from single-parent homes will be more independent.Children from single-parent homes will be more independent. Regular exercise will reduce depression.Regular exercise will reduce depression.

15 Variables A variable is any event or behavior or characteristic that can change (have more than one value). A variable is any event or behavior or characteristic that can change (have more than one value). Examples of variables are amount of exercise, level of attractiveness, level of independence, weight, etc.Examples of variables are amount of exercise, level of attractiveness, level of independence, weight, etc. A “relationship” between variables means that as one variable changes the “related” variable also changes. A “relationship” between variables means that as one variable changes the “related” variable also changes. For example “as the amount of aerobic exercise increases, the person’s weight decreases” demonstrates a relationship between exercise and weight.For example “as the amount of aerobic exercise increases, the person’s weight decreases” demonstrates a relationship between exercise and weight.

16 The Research Hypothesis Hypotheses must be testable. Hypotheses must be testable. The concepts used must be operationally defined. The concepts used must be operationally defined. Operationally defining a concept means that the way you measure a concept is how you define it.Operationally defining a concept means that the way you measure a concept is how you define it. “ attractive ” is operationally defined as receiving a rating above 7 on a 10 point scale. “ attractive ” is operationally defined as receiving a rating above 7 on a 10 point scale. “ independent ” is operationally defined as “ completing a specified task with no prompts or instructions ”. “ independent ” is operationally defined as “ completing a specified task with no prompts or instructions ”. How would you operationally define “ depression ” ? How would you operationally define “ depression ” ?

17 Generating Research Ideas Challenging common sense Challenging common sense Observe the world around you looking for regularities and asking why Observe the world around you looking for regularities and asking why Reviewing past research Reviewing past research Solving practical problems Solving practical problems Testing theories Testing theories

18Theories Organize and explain existing data. Organize and explain existing data. Lead to insights that generate new studies and new data. Lead to insights that generate new studies and new data. Are supported when new data are consistent with the theory. Are supported when new data are consistent with the theory. Must be revised when new data are collected that reveal weaknesses in the theory. Must be revised when new data are collected that reveal weaknesses in the theory. May be replaced by newer theories that provide better explanations for the data. May be replaced by newer theories that provide better explanations for the data.

19 Drawbacks of Theory-Based Research Theory may divert attention away from other important issues and problems. Theory may divert attention away from other important issues and problems. Theory may provide a wrong way of looking at the world and may prevent us from finding more accurate ways of viewing phenomena. Theory may provide a wrong way of looking at the world and may prevent us from finding more accurate ways of viewing phenomena.

20 APA Research Articles Abstract Abstract Short summary of the research article for library indexing purposes.Short summary of the research article for library indexing purposes. Introduction Introduction Describes the research problem, reviews related past research, provides current research question and rationale.Describes the research problem, reviews related past research, provides current research question and rationale. Method Method Describes subjects, research procedures and materials.Describes subjects, research procedures and materials.

21 APA Research Articles Results Results Describes results and portrays them in statistical tables and/or graphs.Describes results and portrays them in statistical tables and/or graphs. Discussion Discussion Relates results to research and hypotheses cited in the Introduction, discusses the implications of these results and suggests future directions for research.Relates results to research and hypotheses cited in the Introduction, discusses the implications of these results and suggests future directions for research. References References Lists the sources of all research cited in the previous sections.Lists the sources of all research cited in the previous sections.

22 Example APA Style Research Paper Pace et al. (1985) Pace et al. (1985) Identify the: Identify the: PurposePurpose General methodGeneral method ResultsResults Discussion highlightsDiscussion highlights