Industrialization The Industrial Revolution began in Great Britain in the 1780s and took several decades to spread to other Western nations. Several factors contributed to make Great Britain the starting place.

Contributing Factors Agricultural practices in the 18 th century had changed.  Expansion of farmland, good weather, improved transportation, and new crops led to a dramatic increase in the food supply. With more abundant food supplies, the population grew. Britain had a ready supply of money, or capital, to invest in the new industrial machines and the factories needed to house them. Natural resources were abundant in Great Britain. Supply of markets gave British manufacturers a ready outlet for their goods.

Cotton Production In the 18 th century, Great Britain had surged ahead in the production of inexpensive cotton goods. Cottage industry-production of cotton goods within rural homes Flying Shuttle- made weaving faster James Hargreaves invented a spinning machine called the spinning jenny.

Cont’d The cotton industry became even more productive when the steam engine was improved in the 1760s by a Scottish engineer, James Watt.

The Coal and Iron Industires The steam engine was crucial to Britain’s Industrial Revolution. For fuel, the engine depended on coal and led to an expansion in the coal industry. New processes using coal aided the transformation of another industry- the iron industry. Henry Cort developed a new process to produce a higher quality of iron called puddling.

Railroads In the 18 th century, more efficient means of moving resources and foods developed. In 1804, the first steam-powered locomotive ran on an industrial rail-line in Britain. Building railroads created new jobs for laborers and peasants. Less expensive transportation led to lower-priced goods, which created larger markets. More sales meant more factories and more machinery.

Factories The factory was another important element in the Industrial Revolution. The factory created a new labor system. Factory owners wanted to use their new machines constantly, so workers were forced to work in shifts to keep the machines producing at a steady pace. Early factory workers came from rural places where they were used to periods of hectic work followed by periods of inactivity. Factory workers had to create discipline for the early factory workers.

The Spread of Industrialization By the mid 19 th century, Great Britain had become the world’s first and richest industrial nation. An Industrial Revolution also occurred in the United States. The United States was a large country in the 1800s so a transportation system was vital to move goods across the nation. Robert Fulton built the first paddle-wheel steamboat. Most important in the development of an American transportation system was the railroad.

Social Changes The Industrial Revolution drastically changed the social life of Europe and the world. Two new classes emerged: industrial middle class and the industrial working class. Population grew in the cities because of a decline in death rates, wars, and diseases. Rapid growth of the cities led to pitiful living conditions for many of the inhabitants.

The Industrial Middle Class Industrial Capitalism- an economic system based on industrial production. The industrial middle class was made up of people who built the factories, bought the machines, and figured out where the markets were.

The Industrial Middle Class Workers had to work long hours six days a week. There was no minimum wage and no job security. Working conditions in most factories were harsh and dangerous. Wives and children were hired at most factories to earn money to support their families.

Early Socialism The pitiful working conditions gave rise to a movement known as socialism. Socialism- a system in which society usually in the form of the government, owns and controls some means of production, such as factories and utilities. Socialists wanted to replace competition with cooperation. Robert Owen was a utopian socialist that believed that humans would show their natural goodness if they lived in a cooperative environment

Chapter 12: Section 2 Reaction and Revolution

When the great powers of Austria, Prussia, Russia, and Great Britain met at the Congress of Vienna in 1814, they wanted to restore the old order after Napoleon’s defeat. Prince Klemens von Metternich was the Austrian foreign minister who led the Congress.

He said he was guided at Vienna by the principle of legitimacy: legitimate monarchs deposed by Napoleon would be restored in the interest of peace and stability.

The arrangement worked out at the Congress of Vienna curtailed the forces set loose by the French Revolution. Those who saw this as a victory, such as Metternich, held a political philosophy called conservatism. Conservatism is based on tradition and social stability.

Conservatives wanted obedience to traditional political authority and believed that organized religion was important to an ordered society. They did not like revolution or demands for rights and government representation. Most of the great powers eventually adopted the principle of intervention: countries had a right to intervene where revolutions were threatening monarchies.

The forces of liberalism and nationalism were gathering to bring about change in the old order. Liberalism is based principally on Enlightenment principles and held that people should be free of government restraint as much as possible. The chief liberal belief was the importance of protecting the basic rights of all people. Liberals believed these civil rights should be guaranteed, as they are in the American Bill of Rights.

Nationalism was an even more powerful force for change in the nineteenth century. It arose out of people’s awareness of belonging to a community with common institutions, traditions, language, and customs. This community is called a nation. In the view of nationalists, citizens owe their loyalty to the nation, not a king or other entity. Nationalists came to believe that each nationality should have its own government.

The Revolutions of 1848 France had severe economic problems beginning in 1846, causing hardships to the lower class. At the same time, the middle class wanted the right to vote. Louis-Philippe refused to make changes, and opposition grew. The new constitution, ratified in November 1848, set up the Second Republic, with a single legislature elected by universal male suffrage. A president served for four years. Charles Louis Napoleon Bonaparte (called Louis-Napoleon), the famous ruler’s nephew, was elected president.

Germany The Congress of Vienna had recognized 38 independent German states, called the German Confederation. The 1848 cries for change led many German rulers to promise constitutions, a free press, and jury trials. An all-German parliament, the Frankfurt Assembly, met to fulfill the liberal and nationalist goal of creating a constitution for a unified Germany.

Austria The Austrian Empire had its problems. In March 1848, demonstrations led to the ouster of Metternich, the quintessential conservative. Revolutionary forces took control of the capital, Vienna, and demanded a liberal constitution.

Italy The Congress of Vienna had set up nine states in Italy. Revolt against Austria broke out in Lombardy and Venetia. Revolutionaries in other Italian states took up arms. By 1849, however, Austria had established the old order throughout Italy.

In Europe in 1848, popular revolts led to constitutional governments. The revolutionaries could not stay united, however, and conservative rule was reestablished.