Fig8_2

InRev8a InRev7cInRev7bInRev7a InRev6bInRev6aInRev5bInRev5aInRev4bInRev2a INGREDIENTS OF THOUGHT Mental representations of familiar locations Visual mental representations of physical objects, events, and scenes Generalizations about concepts formed by experience; mental representations of a typical sequence of activity, usually involving people’s behavior Smallest unit of knowledge that can stand as a separate assertion Clusters of propositions that represent our understanding of how things work. Stories that contain mental representations of important information learned in the past Ingredient Cognitive maps Mental images Concept schemas and event scripts Propositions Mental models Narratives Description How it is used Cognitive maps help us describe the world, plan routes, and reach destinations. Mental images can be manipulated— rotated, expanded, and examined—to help us think about spatial problems like those involved in navigation. Concept schemas represent a large set of specific examples and create expectations; scripts may be used to interpret what will happen or is happening in familiar situations—a component of top-down processing. Propositions are usually evaluated as to truth or falsity. Mental models guide our interactions with things; they may be correct or biased. Narratives are used to retrieve relevant concepts, schemas, and event scripts from memory.

Fig85a

Solution to the Tower of Hanoi Problem To complete this mission, it helps to break the task into subgoals. the first is to get ring 3 to the bottom of peg C (move ring 1 to peg C, ring 2 to peg B, and ring 1 from peg C to peg B; then put ring 3 at the bottom of peg C). Your second subgoal is to get ring 2 to peg C (move ring 1 to peg A and ring 2 to C). The third subgoal is now easy: just move ring 1 over to peg C--and you’re done.

Fig86

Fig8_8

Fig8_10

InRev8b InRev8aInRev7cInRev7bInRev7a InRev6bInRev6aInRev5bInRev5aInRev4bInRev2a SOLVING PROBLEMS Inexperience: the tendency to see each problem as unique. Availability heuristic: the tendency to recall the hypothesis or solution that is most available to memory. Anchoring heuristic, or mental set: the tendency to anchor on the first solution or hypothesis and not adjust your beliefs in light of new evidence or failures of the current approach. The tendency to ignore negative evidence. Confirmation bias: the tendency to seek only evidence that confirms your hypothesis. Steps Define the problem Form hypotheses about solutions Test hypotheses Pitfalls Remedies Gain experience and practice in seeing the similarity between present problems and previous problems. Force yourself to entertain different hypotheses. Break the mental set, stop, and try a fresh approach. In evaluating a hypothesis, consider the things you should see (but don’t) if the hypothesis were true. Look for disconfirming evidence that, if found, would show your hypothesis to be false.

Fig165

SOCIAL INFLUENCE Do people solve problems better alone or in a group? (p. 274) PSYCHOLOGICAL DISORDERS How do schizophrenic individuals think? (p. 544) BIOLOGICAL ASPECTS OF PSYCHOLOGY Where are the brain’s language centers? (p. 74) LINKAGES to Cognition and Language