 What Is Language?  How Language Develops  Biological and Environmental Influences

Defining Language  Form of communication, whether spoken, written, or signed, based on system of symbols. Infinite generativity — ability to produce an endless number of meaningful sentences using a finite set of words and rules What is Language?

Language’s Rule Systems What is Language? Phonology Morphology Syntax Sound system of language; how the sounds are used and combined – phoneme is smallest unit of sound morphemes are units of meaning involved in word formation Ways words are combined to form acceptable phrases and sentences Semantics Meanings of words and sentences Pragmatics Appropriate use of language in context; can be very complex

How Language Develops  Infancy  Early Childhood  Middle and Late Childhood  Adolescence  Adulthood and Aging

Infancy  Babbling, gestures, and other vocalizations: Crying - from birth Cooing - 1 to 2 months Babbling - around 6 months Gestures - 8 to 12 months How Language Develops

Infancy  Recognizing Language Sounds: ‘Citizens of the world’ Newborns recognize sound changes Can recognize own language sounds at 6 months  First Words : Receptive vocabulary considerably exceeds spoken vocabulary Timing of first word and vocabulary spurt varies How Language Develops

Infancy  Two-Word Utterances Begins between 18 to 24 months Child relies heavily on gesture, tone, context Telegraphic speech — use of short and precise words without grammatical markers How Language Develops

Variation in Language Milestones

Early Childhood  Understanding Phonology and Morphology Children know morphological rules ○ Plural and possessive forms of nouns ○ Third-person singular and past-tense verbs Children abstract rules and apply them to novel situations ○ Sometimes overgeneralize rules How Language Develops

Understanding Syntax  Preschoolers learn and apply syntax rules  Children show growing mastery of complex rules for how words should be ordered  By elementary school years, children become skilled at using syntactical rules to construct lengthy and complex sentences How Language Develops

Family Environment  Mother’s education level is positively correlated to number of books in home  Single-parent and welfare families had fewer books than two-parent and affluent families  Kindergartener had better language skills if parents read to them 3 or more times a week How Language Develops

Language Input and Young Children’s Vocabulary Development

Advances in Pragmatics 4 to 5 Years Old 4 Years Old 3 Years Old Change speech style to suit the social situation Develop remarkable sensitivity to needs of others in conversation Improve ability to talk about things not physically present, improved displacement How Language Develops

Advances in Semantics  Speaking vocabulary: ranges from 8,000 to 14,000 words for 6- year-olds Rate of 5 to 8 words per day from ages 1 to 6 Some estimate 6-year-old learns 22 words a day Entering elementary school with small vocabulary places child at risk for reading problems Quantity of parent talk linked to child’s vocabulary growth and SES of family How Language Develops

Middle and Late Childhood  Vocabulary and grammar Reading and writing assumes prominent role Preschoolers usually respond with one word first Elementary school children ○ Increasingly understand, use complex grammar ○ Metalinguistic awareness greatly improves How Language Develops

Reading How Language Develops  Before learning to read, children learn To use language to describe things not present The alphabetic principle: letters represent sound  Whole language approach Instruction should parallel child’s natural language learning; reading should be whole and meaningful  Basic-skills-and-phonics approach Instruction should teach phonics and its basic rules; reading should involve simplified materials

Literacy  2- to 3-year-olds emerge from scribbling to begin printing letters  Most 4-year-olds can print their names Reversed letters may not predict literacy problems Children often invent spellings Adults should encourage early writing Literacy gets better with repeated practice

National Reading Panel  Most effective phonological awareness training Has two main skills: blending and segmentation Best when integrated with reading and writing; small groups more beneficial than whole class  Children benefit from guided oral reading How Language Develops

Relation of Reading Achievement to Number of Pages Read Daily

Grammatical Proficiency and Age of Arrival in U.S.

Middle and Late Childhood  Bilingualism — ability to speak two languages Learning second language easier for children Children’s ability to pronounce second language with correct accent decreases with age; sharp drop after age 10 to 12 Has positive effect on children’s cognitive development How Language Develops

Adolescence  Increased use and understanding of: Sophisticated words Analysis and abstract thinking Metaphors — implied comparison of unlike things Satire — use of irony, derision, or wit to expose folly or wickedness How Language Develops

Adolescence  Adolescents are much better at organizing ideas and writing  Dialect — variety of language distinguished by vocabulary, grammar, or pronunciation Adolescent dialect with peers often uses jargon or slang Usually used to indicate group membership How Language Develops

Adulthood  Distinct personal linguistic style is part of special identity  Vocabulary often continues to increase throughout adult years until late adulthood Little decline among healthier older adults  Non-language factors may be cause of decline in language skills in older adults How Language Develops

Adulthood  Some decrements common in late adulthood Inability to distinguish speech sounds Tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon Alzheimer’s disease ○ Language does not change ○ Word-finding difficulties are early warning signs How Language Develops

Biological Influences  Evolution and the brain’s role in language Human language about 100,000 years old Particular regions of brain predisposed for language acquisition Most comprehend syntax in left hemisphere; emotion and intonation comprehended in right hemisphere Aphasia — language disorder resulting from brain damage; loss of ability to use words Biological and Environmental Influences

Biological Influences  Evolution and the brain’s role in language Broca’s area — area of brain’s left frontal lobe involved in speech production Wernicke’s area — area of brain’s left hemisphere involved in language comprehension ○ If damaged — fluent incomprehensible speech produced Biological and Environmental Influences

Broca’s and Wernicke’s Areas of the Brain

Language Acquisition Device  Chomsky Humans biologically prewired for language Language acquisition device (LAD): biological endowment to detect features and rules of language Theoretical, not physical part of brain Evidence of uniformity in language milestones across languages and cultures Biological and Environmental Influences

Environmental Influences  Behavioral View Language is complex learned skill, reinforced Problems with behavioral view: ○ Cannot explain people creating novel sentences ○ Children can learn syntax of native language without reinforcement ○ Fails to explain language’s extensive orderliness Biological and Environmental Influences

Environmental Influences  Environmental influences Mother’s language linked to child’s vocabulary Child-directed speech — higher pitch for attention ○ Parents, older children modify their speech Other strategies ○ Recasting — rephrasing ○ Expanding — restating ○ Labeling — identifying objects by names Biological and Environmental Influences

Influencing A Child’s Language Development Infants –Be active conversational partner –Talk as if the infant understands –Use a comfortable language style Toddlers –Continue being active conversational partner –Remember to listen –Use a comfortable language style but expand utterances –Avoid sexual stereotypes –Don’t make normative comparisons

An Interactionist View of Language  Language Has biological foundations Acquisition influenced by experiences Children acquire native language without explicit teaching; some without encouragement  Bruner: parents and teachers help construct language acquisition support system (LASS) Resembles Vygotsky’s ZPD Biological and Environmental Influences