Bell Ringer Share your examples of correlations with a neighbor and from your six examples and choose one that: 1. Infers causality 2. Could have a third variable (z causing x and y to both change)

Testing Method Several types of tests, (AIMS & SAT) measure various elements of human behavior such as abilities, interests, and personality. Advantages – Enables researchers to gain insight into certain aspects of an individual’s abilities or behavior. Disadvantages – Does not always provide a complete or accurate representation of an individual’s true abilities or personalities.

Case-Study Method Researchers conduct in-depth investigations of individuals or small groups. Advantages – Provides insight into specific cases. Disadvantages May focus on isolated circumstances or events that cannot be replicated. – People interviewed in case studies may distort their past experiences. – May unintentionally encourage people to answer questions a certain way.

Longitudinal Method A group of participants are observed at intervals over an extended period of time. Advantages – Enable researchers to see how individuals change over time. Disadvantages – Time-consuming and expensive. – Participants may not be available for the duration of the study. (attrition)

Cross-Sectional Method Advantages – Less time- consuming than the longitudinal method for studying changes over time. Disadvantages – Differences between the members of the sample cannot necessarily be attributed to age or development. Researchers compare the differences and similarities among people in different age groups at a given time.

Experimental Method Advantages – Researchers are able to manipulate variables to determine cause and effect. – Laboratory setting enables researcher to monitor and record all stages of the experiment. Disadvantages – Conditions created in laboratory may not accurately reflect the conditions of real life. – Experiments may be subject to volunteer bias, researcher bias, and the placebo effect Researchers administer a treatment, then carefully observe the participants to determine how the treatment influences their behavior, if at all. {Cause & Effect}

Experimental Method Variables: Measurable factor or condition Independent Variables: factors manipulated to determine its effect Dependent Variable: factor effected (Ex. Warm temperature causes aggression independent variables dependent variables) Placebo: A substance or treatment that has no effect apart from belief in it. Single Blind: participant unaware if they have taken placebo Double Blind: both participant or examiner are unaware of who received placebo

AMERICAN PSYCHOLOGY ASSOCIATION (APA) - A scientific and professional organization of psychologists Code of ethics guidelines was established in 1993 to protect the rights of subjects: all psychology researchers must follow these guidelines: 1. Issue of risk 2. Confidentiality 3. Informed Consent 4. Debriefing 5. Deception

Ethical Issues Psychologists follow ethical standards to promote: -The dignity of the individual, -Foster human welfare, & -Maintain scientific integrity. Prevents scientists from undertaking research or treatment that will be harmful to human participants.

Risk & Confidentiality ISSUE OF RISK: No physical or psychological harm done to subjects. RIGHT TO PRIVACY: Studies must be conducted in complete confidentiality. Names omitted from data of these studies; Reported in group form rather than as responses from individuals Subjects more likely to disclose true information and feelings

Informed Consent & Debriefing INFORMED CONSENT: - People agree to participate in a research study only after they have been given a general overview. - Given the choice of whether or not to participate. - Subject must know the hypothesis being tested, and nature and implication of these results for the science of psychology. DEBRIEFING: Avoid misunderstandings, reduces anxieties and helps to maintain subjects dignity

Deception Should psychologists lie to their subjects? Ψ Not always possible to tell the whole truth about a study. Examples: Stanley Milgram, 1963 Stanley Milgram, Stanley Milgram, How far will people obey authority figure who orders them to violate their own ethical code? Only under specific conditions: Ψ Belief that the benefit outweigh its potential harm Ψ The subject might have be willing to participate if they had understood its benefits Ψ Must receive an explanation of the study after it occurred

Animal Research ΨShould animals be used in research? Ψ7 or 8 percent of psychological studies are done on animals. Ψ95% of the animals are Norwegian white rodents, which is bred specifically for research purposes and is relatively cheap and healthy. Ψ Other animals used are pigeons, cats, monkeys, apes and other.

Harm of Animals ΨMost animals are not harmed. ΨHowever, physical and psychological harm such as experiments in which infant monkeys are reared apart from their mothers and as a consequence develop abnormal behavior. ΨSome studies require the animal’s death (never vivisection) ΨExample: when rats brought up in deprived or enrich environments are sacrificed so that their brains can be examined for any effects. Monkey Torture Monkey Torture

WHY ANIMALS? - Similar Enough to Generalize Biology and Behavior - Different enough to avoid empathy Ψ Speciesism is the assigning of different values or rights to beings on the basis of their species membership.

SHOULD THERE BE A BAN ON ANIMAL RESEARCH? BENEFITS BENEFITS Ψ Treating enuresis (bed wetting); Ψ Fecal incontinence (loss of bowel control); Ψ Improve classroom learning; Ψ Teach retarded children to communicate; Ψ Develop a device to correct curvature of the spine; Ψ Devise behavioral therapies for treating emotional problems and substance abuse; Ψ Combat life-threatening malnutrition caused by chronic vomiting in infants… CONTROVERSIAL Ψ Medical use of animal; Ψ Drug testing; Ψ Surgical procedures; Ψ Bypass surgery, pacemakers, heart transplants, & polio vaccines; Ψ Eye make-up.