Chapter 4 Ecosystems and Living Organisms

Overview o Evolution Natural Selection Natural Selection Domains and Kingdoms Domains and Kingdoms o Biological Communities Primary & Secondary Succession Primary & Secondary Succession o Symbiosis Mutualism, Commensalism, Parasitism Mutualism, Commensalism, Parasitism o Predation & Competition o Resource Partitioning o Keystone Species o Species Richness & Community Stability

Evolution o The cumulative genetic changes that occur in a population of organisms over time Current theories were proposed by Charles Darwin, a 19 th century naturalist Current theories were proposed by Charles Darwin, a 19 th century naturalist Evolution occurs through natural selection Evolution occurs through natural selection o Natural Selection Individuals with more favorable genetic traits are more likely to survive and reproduce Individuals with more favorable genetic traits are more likely to survive and reproduce Frequency of favorable traits increase in subsequent generations Frequency of favorable traits increase in subsequent generations

Natural Selection o Based on four observations about the natural world 1. Overproduction Each species produces more offspring than will survive to maturity Each species produces more offspring than will survive to maturity 2. Variation Individuals in a population exhibit variation Individuals in a population exhibit variation 3. Limits on Population Growth Resource limitations will keep population in check Resource limitations will keep population in check 4. Differential Reproductive Success Individuals with most favorable traits are more likely to reproduce Individuals with most favorable traits are more likely to reproduce

Natural Selection o Darwin’s finches exemplified the variation associated with natural selection

Domains and Kingdoms of Life

Biological Communities o Communities vary greatly in size and lack precise boundaries They are often nestled within each other They are often nestled within each other

Succession o The process where a community develops slowly through a series of species o Earlier species alter the environment in some way to make it more habitable by other species As more species arrive, the earlier species are outcompeted and replaced As more species arrive, the earlier species are outcompeted and replaced o Two types of succession Primary succession Primary succession Secondary succession Secondary succession

Primary Succession o Succession that begins in a previously uninhabited environment No soil is present! No soil is present! Ex: bare rocks, cooled lava fields, etc. Ex: bare rocks, cooled lava fields, etc. o General Succession Pattern Lichen secrete acids that crumble the rock (soil begins to form) Lichen secrete acids that crumble the rock (soil begins to form) Lichen mosses grasses shrubs forests

o Primary Succession 1. Bare rock with lichen 2. Grasses and shrubs 3. Forest community 12 3

Secondary Succession o Succession that begins in an environment following destruction of all or part of the earlier community Ex: abandoned farmland, open area after fire Ex: abandoned farmland, open area after fire o Does NOT follow primary succession! Even though name may imply this Even though name may imply this o Generally occurs more rapidly than primary succession

Secondary Succession of an abandoned farm field in North Carolina

Interactions Among Organisms o Symbiosis An intimate relationship between members of 2 or more species An intimate relationship between members of 2 or more species Participants may be benefited, harmed or unaffected by the relationship Participants may be benefited, harmed or unaffected by the relationship Results of coevolution Results of coevolution o Three types of symbiosis Mutualism Mutualism Commensalism Commensalism Parasitism Parasitism

Mutualism o Symbiotic relationship in which both members benefit o Ex: Mycorrihzal fungi and plant roots Fungus grows around and into roots providing roots with otherwise unavailable nitrogen from soil Fungus grows around and into roots providing roots with otherwise unavailable nitrogen from soil Roots provide fungi with food produced by photosynthesis in the plant Roots provide fungi with food produced by photosynthesis in the plant Left: root growth without fungi Left: root growth without fungi Right: root growth with fungi Right: root growth with fungi

Commensalism o Symbiotic relationship where one species benefits and the other is neither harmed nor helped o Ex: epiphytes and tropical trees Epiphyte anchors itself to the tree, but does not take nutrients from the tree Epiphyte anchors itself to the tree, but does not take nutrients from the tree Epiphyte benefits from getting closer to sunlight, tropical tree is not affected Epiphyte benefits from getting closer to sunlight, tropical tree is not affected

Parasitism o Symbiotic relationship in which one species is benefited and the other is harmed Parasites rarely kill their hosts Parasites rarely kill their hosts o Ex: Varroa mites and honeybees Mites live in the breathing tubes of the bees, sucking their blood and weakening them Mites live in the breathing tubes of the bees, sucking their blood and weakening them

Predation o The consumption of one species by another o Many predator-prey interactions Most common is pursuit and ambush Most common is pursuit and ambush o Plants and animals have established specific defenses against predation through evolution

Pursuit and Ambush o Pursuing prey simply means chasing it down and catching it Ex: Day gecko and spider (see picture) Ex: Day gecko and spider (see picture) o Ambush is when predators catch prey unaware Camouflage Camouflage Attract prey with Attract prey with colors or light colors or light

Plant Defenses Against Predation o Plants cannot flee predators o Adaptations Spikes, thorns, leathery leaves, thick wax Spikes, thorns, leathery leaves, thick wax Protective chemicals that are poisonous or unpalatable Protective chemicals that are poisonous or unpalatable

Animal Defenses Against Predation o Fleeing or running o Mechanical defenses Ex: quills of porcupines, shell of turtles Ex: quills of porcupines, shell of turtles o Living in groups o Camouflage o Chemical defenses- poisons poisons Ex: brightly colored poison Ex: brightly colored poison arrow frog arrow frog

Competition o Interaction among organisms that vie for the same resource in an ecosystem o Intraspecific Competition between individuals in a population Competition between individuals in a population o Interspecific Competition between individuals in 2 different species Competition between individuals in 2 different species

Ecological Niche o The totality of an organisms adaptations, its use of resources, and the lifestyle to which it is fitted o Takes into account all aspect of an organisms existence Physical, chemical, biological factors needed to survive Physical, chemical, biological factors needed to survive Habitat Habitat Abiotic components of the environment Abiotic components of the environment Ex: Light, temperature, moisture Ex: Light, temperature, moisture

Ecological Niche o Fundamental niche Potential idealized ecological niche Potential idealized ecological niche o Realized niche The actual niche the organism occupies The actual niche the organism occupies o Ex: Green Anole and Brown Anole

Ecological Niche o Green Anole and Brown Anole Fundamental niches of 2 lizards initially overlapped Fundamental niches of 2 lizards initially overlapped Brown anole eventually out-competed the green anole- reduced the green anole’s realized niche Brown anole eventually out-competed the green anole- reduced the green anole’s realized niche

Limiting Resources (factors) o Any environmental resource that, because it is scarce or at unfavorable levels, restricts the ecological niche of an organism

Interspecific: Competition using Paramecium

Competitive Exclusion & Resource Petitioning o Competitive Exclusion One species excludes another from a portion of the same niche as a result of competition for resources One species excludes another from a portion of the same niche as a result of competition for resources o Resource Partitioning Coexisting species’ niche differ from each other in some way Coexisting species’ niche differ from each other in some way

Keystone Species o A species that exerts profound influence on a community More important to the community than what would be expected based on abundance More important to the community than what would be expected based on abundance o The dependence of other species on the keystone species is apparent when the keystone species is removed Protecting keystone species is a goal to conservation biologists Protecting keystone species is a goal to conservation biologists

Species Richness o The number of species in a community Tropical rainforests = high species richness Tropical rainforests = high species richness Isolated island = low species richness Isolated island = low species richness o Related to the abundance of potential ecological niches