Livelihoods, Vulnerability and Water Scarcity Fiona Miller SEI Stockholm

How do you read this landscape? What questions do you begin to ask to understand the water issues here?

Ways of Seeing Rivers Source: Newson, 1997 A geomorphologist’s view… An engineer’s view…

A water manager’s view… A river basin authority’s view… Source: Newson, 1997

Ways of seeing the Mekong River… Mekong River as “cascade” of dams Mekong River as percentages of flow and catchment areas Source: Hirsch and Cheong, 1996 Source: MRC, 1999 Source: Ringler, 2001 Model of Mekong River water use; river as nodes of water inflow and offtake, reservoirs, hydropower stations

Pressure on Water Resources China: mainstream dams; rapid blasting; navigation expansion Laos: tributary dam construction; subsistence livelihoods; dry season irrigation expansion; Thailand: dry season irrigation expansion; large-scale inter-basin diversion schemes Cambodia: floods, Tonle Sap and fisheries and livelihoods; irrigation expansion How vulnerable is the delta to water scarcity?

Map of extent of saline water intrusion, Mekong Delta Characteristics of Water Scarcity in the Mekong Delta Region extremely vulnerable to worsening water scarcity –Differential vulnerabilities between areas, livelihoods and social groups Concurrently a decline in dry season water flows into the delta and an increase in water demand throughout delta Salinity intrusion increasing in severity due to rise in dry season water use throughout basin Water scarcity and salinity intrusion reduce agricultural production and impact upon human health Potential impacts on ecosystems, agricultural production and food security have increased with agricultural intensification and pop. growth

How to indicate the level of vulnerability to water scarcity? Map water scarce areas Identify water scarce periods –relate to cropping calendars Population exposed –number of people; number of people without access to safe water sources; –poverty indicators and poverty maps; Agriculture and livelihoods exposed –extent of investments; gross measures of production; contribution to local incomes, employment, export earnings, national GDP, food security; Health –incidence of water-borne diseases; child mortality rates; Adaptation and Conflict –Extent to which water scarcity a policy priority –Responsiveness and effectiveness of institutions –Institutional costs of water regulation, conflict prevention and resolution?

Availability of capital for investments Influence of system inefficiency How are people vulnerable to water scarcity? Health and sanitationAccess to diverse livelihood strategies

Tail-ender’s perspective Transporting pump to field, Luong Hoa Bucketing water to drain field, Tra Cu Silted canal with broken gate How do institutions and social relations influence vulnerability to water scarcity?

Social Relations Under Conditions of Water Scarcity: the case of Luong Hoa Commune Shift from single to double-triple cropping in last 20 years Increasingly human-regulated water control system High proportion of households with in- direct water access System neglect and deterioration Rising cost of water, low returns on agriculture Resistance to formal modes of cooperation, yet some informal cooperation Limited participation in water resources management decision making at greater scales Potential for unequal water access to contribute to greater social differentiation

Individual Vulnerability to Water Scarcity Land Position and Quality Pumping Arrangements Access to diverse livelihood strategies Social Position and Asset Base High land, far from canal-indirect access Land near canal - direct access Well drained land, near canal - direct access Young households Female headed households More established households Enough investment for pumping, independent pumping Enough investment for pumping, cooperate with neighbours Insufficient investment for pumping, no cooperation with neighbours Upland crops and gardens Local labouring Fish, with nets Fish,with rod Labouring away

Community Vulnerability to Water Scarcity Rice intensification Reliant on an inefficient, inadequate water control system Limited local cooperation and weak links with broader scale institutions Lack of diverse livelihood strategies and degradation of local environment Disparities in wealth, and rise in level of landlessness and indebtedness

Delta Vulnerability to Water Scarcity Intensification of water use (requiring precise applications) in the face of declining water security Inadequate consideration of importance of ecological variability and dynamism Lack of agro-ecological diversity contributes to greater agronomic and economic risks Absence of effective institutions (equitable water use coordination, management, conflict resolution)

Indicators of Vulnerability to Water Scarcity Aspect of Vulnerability Physical dimension Access Labour burden of water collection (gender and age differences) Indicator of Vulnerability Physical dimension Percentage of fields with direct access to waterways Land fragmentation Cost of investment in water access Hours spent collecting water Temporal dimension Critical periods (e.g. beginning of crop cycle, prior to harvest) Temporal dimension Crop calendars Social dimension Drinking water Health Institutions (responsive, representative, anticipatory) Relations between individuals, households, communities Social dimension Number of people without access to safe water supplies Incidence of water borne diseases ? Economic dimension Extent of investment Cost of water access Diversification Inequality Economic dimension Extent of investment & potential losses Water fees, pumping costs, relations Diversification options in agriculture, aquaculture, livestock, migration Gini-coefficients

Neighbouring farmers Farmer Group/Collective Community (including other water users)  Rice Farmer: water user, regulator and manager  Influence of Water Actors

High level of cooperation: group pumping with single pump High level of cooperation: farmer- organised construction of canal Re-dredged kinh söôøn pipe Secondary canal Dyke Greater cooperation: pumping with ditch on neighbour’s plot Limited cooperation: sequential through- pumping with single pump Neighbour’s plot (10 coáng ) Plot of Farmer Pump Ditch Examples of cooperation for water access

Neighbouring farmers Farmer Group/Collective Water Regulators: pump operators gate operators neighbours Community (including other water users) System Maintainers: labourers individual farmers lao ñoäng coâng ích dredging companies Other Local Water Users: fishers boat operators local residents  Rice Farmer: water user, regulator and manager  Policy Makers: provincial water resource officials national water policy officers international water experts global water actors Local Water Managers: farmer groups/collectives agricultural officer commune officials district water officials

Neighbouring farmers Farmer Group/Collective Water Regulators: pump operators gate operators neighbours Community (including other water users) System Maintainers: labourers individual farmers lao ñoäng coâng ích dredging companies Influences access to water (timing and amount) Pays for service; negotiate for improved service Influences efficiency of system and water access Contributes labour or fee Influence and negotiate on local water rules and norms; pay fees, taxes; Set broad policy agenda & legal framework; design institutional structure; design & construct water resources infrastructure; Other Local Water Users fishers boat operators local residents Influences water availability (quantity and quality) Competes for water Formulates and regulates rules on water use; resolves water conflicts  Rice Farmer: water user, regulator and manager  Policy Makers provincial water resource officials national water policy officers international water experts global water actors Local Water Managers: farmer groups/collectives agricultural officer commune officials district water officials Add People!

Concluding Comments and Questions The lenses we use to look at the water landscape influence the sorts of questions we ask –What do we want to know? What data and knowledge counts? How can WEAP assist us to address questions related to vulnerability and livelihoods? WEAP-able: –Upstream-downstream interactions between provinces in the delta to identify areas of unmet demand –Make explicit the priorities and preferences regarding water use Non-WEAP-able: –Social and institutional implications of scarcity –Differentiated implications of water scarcity Water is much more about a process of negotiation rather than allocation Balance between data and process

Malcon Newson. Land, Water & Development Sustainable Management of River Basin System. London.