Chapter 10 Behavior in Groups

Behavior in the Presence of Others The presence of others sometimes enhances and sometimes impairs an individual’s performance.

Behavior in the Presence of Others Social Facilitation: People sometimes perform better in the presence of others than when they are alone

Behavior in the Presence of Others Social facilitation occurs: Whether others are performing the same task, or whether the others are merely observers In many species others than humans

Behavior in the Presence of Others Social inhibition occurs when the presence of others inhibits a person’s performance.

Behavior in the Presence of Others Zajonc’s theory: Presence of others Arousal Dominant Response If dominant response correct, SOCIAL FACILITATION If dominant response wrong, SOCIAL INHIBITION

Behavior in the Presence of Others Why does the presence of others motivate us? Innate tendency for arousal in the presence of others Evaluation Apprehension Distraction-Conflict Presence of others evokes challenge reaction when resources are sufficient, threat responses when insufficient.

Behavior in the Presence of Others Social facilitation and inhibition occur when a person’s performance is individually identifiable

Behavior in the Presence of Others Social Loafing: When an individual’s contribution to a collective activity cannot be evaluated, individuals often work less hard than they would alone.

Behavior in the Presence of Others The noise produced by each person cheering decreases as group size increases (Latané, Williams, & Harkins, 1979)

Behavior in the Presence of Others Social loafing depends on How important the person believes his/her contribution is to group success How much the person values group success Karau & Williams, 1993

Behavior in the Presence of Others Reducing Social Loafing Make each person’s contribution identifiable Provide rewards for high group productivity Make task meaningful, complex, or interesting

Behavior in the Presence of Others Social compensation occurs when a person expends great effort to compensate for others in the group. When others are performing inadequately, and the person cares about the quality of the group product

Behavior in the Presence of Others Across cultures Social loafing has been found in India, Thailand, Japan, & China However, social loafing may be greater among people from the U.S. than among Asians

Behavior in the Presence of Others In summary: whether social facilitation or social loafing occurs depends on Whether individuals are identifiable Task complexity How much participants care about the outcome

Behavior in the Presence of Others Social Impact Theory (Latané, 1981) Impact depends on Number, Strength, Immediacy

Behavior in the Presence of Others Deindividuation may occur in crowded, anonymous situations when people lose a sense of responsibility for their own actions and feel free to express aggressive and sexual impulses

Behavior in the Presence of Others Zimbardo (1970) had groups of four young women deliver electric shocks to another person Groups were either easily identifiable or not (wore “KKK”-type garb). Unidentifiable groups gave twice as many shocks Johnson & Downing (1979) replicated the study using surgical scrubs for the unidentifiable group. Here, this group shocked less.

Behavior in the Presence of Others Deindividuation increases when individuals are anonymous and as group size increases. Might create a special psychological state in which people are focused externally and unaware of own values Or might heighten individual’s identification with the group and increase conformity.

Behavior in the Presence of Others Crowding refers to the psychological state of discomfort & stress associated with wanting more space than is available. Social density is the objective number of people in a given space. High social density may or may not be experienced as unpleasant

Behavior in the Presence of Others When do people experience the presence of others as crowding? Sensory overload Loss of control Arousal and attribution to presence of others

Behavior in the Presence of Others People from collectivist cultures are less likely to experience high social density as crowding. However, the negative health effects of high social density occur regardless of culture.

Basic Features of Groups A group involves multiple people who are interdependent Typically, but not always, have regular- face-to-face contact. Different from a social category

Basic Features of Groups Social norms are shared rules and expectations about how group members should act. Social roles are norms that apply to people in a particular position. Social status refers to social position based on prestige and authority.

Basic Features of Groups Cohesiveness refers to forces that cause members to remain in a group Positive Factors Liking of members for each other Extent to which members act effectively together Success of group in meeting goals Negative Factors Cost of Leaving Lack of Alternatives

Group Performance Types of Group Activities Additive tasks Success is sum of each person’s effort Conjunctive tasks Success depends on least competent member Disjunctive tasks Success depends on most competent member Subdivided tasks Success depends on both skill & coordination

Group Performance Brainstorming asks group members to think of as many different suggestions as they can in a short time Despite the popularity of this technique, research shows that individuals usually produce more and better ideas working alone

Group Performance When discussing matters of opinion, groups tend to use a majority-rules decision rule. When discussing matters of fact, groups tend to use a truth-wins decision rule. Unanimous decisions are harder to reach but tend to leave group members more satisfied.

Group Performance Groups do not necessarily make wise decisions because they are vulnerable to special social forces that can bias decision-making.

Group Performance Group Polarization = Group discussion may lead to more extreme decisions. Persuasive arguments theory suggests this is due to new information Self-presentation theory suggests this is due to trying to “one-up” other members Social identity theory suggests group members try to conform to the group but perceive the group norm as more extreme If members of a group are evenly split, groups compromise rather than polarize.

Group Performance Groupthink is a process of faulty decision- making that can occur in groups (Janis, 1982) Occurs when group has a strong leader and is under stress Group members become more concerned with group acceptance than correctness Group members censor themselves, do not do a full information search, and evaluate information in a biased way.

Group Performance Overcoming groupthink: Leader remains impartial and encourages the expression of dissent Use separate subcommittees to discuss same issue separately Appoint “devil’s advocates” Consult outside experts

Group Performance Group members tend to discuss shared rather than unshared information Groups may also use meetings to confirm rather than challenge their initial beliefs Thus while groups have the potential to make better decisions than individuals, they do not always do so.

Competition vs. Cooperation Participants in laboratory studies on competition tend to compete, even when cooperation would be a more rewarding strategy.

Competition vs. Cooperation The Deutsch & Krauss Trucking Game The optimal strategy is to alternate using the one-lane road in the middle. However, players rarely cooperate.

Competition vs. Cooperation The Prisoner’s Dilemma Game Both get one year “A” gets 15 years; “B” is released “A” is released; “B” gets 15 years BOTH get 10 years PRISONER “A” PRISONER “B”

Competition vs. Cooperation There is a strong tendency to compete rather than cooperate in the prisoner’s dilemma game Only about a third of choices are cooperative Cooperation typically goes down over time

Competition vs. Cooperation Determinants of Competition vs Cooperation Reward Structure Personal Values Communication Reciprocity

Competition vs. Cooperation Culture and Competition The United States has one of the most competitive cultures on earth. Cultural values about competition are conveyed at home, at school, through the media,and through sports and games.

Competition vs Cooperation A Social Dilemma is a situation in which the most rewarding short-term choice for an individual will ultimately lead to negative outcomes for all- concerned. Some Real-World Applications: preserving environmental resources, avoiding littering

Leadership The leader of a group is the person who has the most impact on group behavior and beliefs. Leaders may be appointed, elected, or emerge over time

Leadership Leaders must perform two types of tasks, task leadership and social leadership. An effective task leader is efficient, directive, and knowledgeable. An effective social leader is friendly, agreeable, concerned with feelings and socially oriented. Sometimes a group will have a different leader for each task; sometimes the same person will serve both roles.

Leadership The great-person theory of leadership suggests that leaders possess particular characteristics Excelling in abilities that meet the group’s goals; strong interpersonal skills; high motivation; confident; optimistic. An interactive perspective focuses on the match between the needs of the situation and the characteristics of the person.

Leadership Fiedler’s contingency model of leadership effectiveness suggests that task-oriented leaders are most effective in high-control and low- control situations, while emotion- focused leaders are more effective in moderate-control situations.