Civilizations in Crisis: The Ottoman Empire, Islamic Heartland and Qing China

The Ottoman Empire

Summary – Why Ottoman survived and China collapsed The parts of Asia still resistant to European intrusion after 1750 suffered political decline and reactions to internal challenges (including Western Imperialism and lack of industrial capability) Qing China actually had growth and prosperity early and was able to repel European intrusions…it would not be until the late 19th C that China would collapse from within However, the Ottoman Empire was picked apart… borders while some parts of their kingdoms sought independence…Ottoman rulers had little response for these issues, though some Western reforms held off total collapse in the 19th C

The Ottoman Retreat By the early 1700s, the Ottomans were in complete retreat…weak rulers and succession struggles opened the doors for power struggles regional governors (who colluded with each other to drain treasury funds), religious leaders, and Janissary commanders The Ottomans were dying economically as they attempted to install fledgling industry competition from advanced western industry ruined local industry

In the areas of territorial loss, Austria-Hungary and Russia had succeeded in capturing territory in the North, while Christians in the Balkans regions rebelled against the empire to form independent states Greece in 1830 Serbia in 1867)

Reforms/Revivals First, the Ottoman Empire survived as long as it did because other European empires feared the territorial gains by Austria-Hungary and Russia… -Britain checked Russian expansion Internal reforms was key as well…Selim III reforms: a. bureaucracy b. military (including a new army and navy) but angered many officials and the Janissaries who rebelled and killed him 1807

20 years later, Mahmud II was much more successful a. Hired European advisers to create westernized professional army that finally drove the Janissaries out (The Auspicious Incident) He then established a Western style bureaucracy with a westernized army and European advisors were imported into the empire to supervise these changes 1839 to 1876 the Tanzimat reforms a. introduced westernization into all aspects of the Ottoman Empire (education, transportation, technology, media and finally a constitution) b. The reforms did little to help the economy, as local artisan industries suffered from European competition…and women gained very little from westernization

Crisis in Other Arab Lands Those territories which had broken away from the Ottoman Empire over time faced the problem of European intrusion Egypt, 1798 Napoleon had successfully defeated the Ottoman Mamluk vassals and took the Nile valley Britain soon removed French presence and installed an Albanian Ottoman named Muhammad Ali in 1811 1. influence to reform local government and the local military, essentially freeing Egypt from further Ottoman control

Muhammad Ali also attempted with limited success to reform Egypt’s economy (though Britain attempted to maintain a stranglehold on that aspect) To maintain security, Ali allied with landlords down the Nile into Sudan to control the peasants, but failed as they resisted his reform attempts and the peasants became even more impoverished Egypt became open for intrusions by Europeans as a result of the disarray

Repression and Revolt The reforms strengthen the state a. reformers felt it was time for the sultan to be replaced as ruler Reaction: Sultan Abdul Hamid responded to this threat upon his power by shifting to despotic absolutism (dictator) a. abolished the new constitution and restricted personal freedoms, though he continued educational, military and technological reforms

A group known as the Young Turks (a. k. a A group known as the Young Turks (a.k.a. Ottoman Society for Union and Progress) were exiled and began plans to rebel against the sultan In 1908 they succeed in his removal, the constitution and civil liberties were restored 1. a puppet sultan installed 2. fringes of the empire became independent or absorbed by European imperialists, the Ottoman Empire slowly “died” They tried to enter WWI in the hope of getting territory back but failed.

European Intrusion and Resistance in Egypt Ali’s successors abandoned his reforms allowing the landlords to profit at the expense of the peasantry…Egypt became a single crop producer (cotton) and all revenues were spent on extravagant (Abbasid) style events and military campaigns to the south in Sudan…the government was in debt to Europeans Suez Canal--Foreign investment built in 1869 (and later taken control of from Egypt as a “repayment” for debt) Muslim intellectuals and political activists looked for ways to protect Egypt from weak rule…al-Azhar U. became a meeting ground for these people…they called for JIHADS Jihadist vs. progressive Muslims In 1882, Ahmad Orabi led a revolt against the khedive (ruler) but failed as Britain intervened to protect the status Khedive Tewfik

JIHAD!!! Unfortunately, the British were drawn into Egypt’s conflict with Sudan…Egypt had only gained direct control over fertile lands around the Nile river in the region The Muslims of N. Sudan backed Muhammad Achmad, a religious figure known as the Mahdi…he called for JIHAD!!! against Egypt and Britain…the Mahdists (followers) used guerrilla tactics and won control over Sudan Soon after these early victories the Mahdi died, and was replaced by Khalifa Abdallahi a. a strong central state was established with strict control by the Islamic right and continued to threaten European positions in the region b. 1896, the British under General Frederick Kitchener defeated Abdallahi at the Battle of Omdurman (The Four Feathers) -Egypt and the Sudan fell under the direct control of the British Empire, becoming dependent on British products and demands for raw materials

Nurhaci (1559-1626). Manchu leader. Drives Chinese south of Great Wall Nurhaci (1559-1626) Manchu leader Drives Chinese south of Great Wall Signification of Manchuria 1644, take Beijing Found Qing dynasty Qing Retain Ming rule

China’s Last Dynasty: The Qing The Manchu retained the Ming political system pardoned rebels as a show of good faith Kept some Ming officials but eliminated their tax exemptions retained examination system Manchu actually pass to be in the bureaucracy…most members were NON-Manchu and were generally paired with Manchu officials

Qing Economy and Society Manchu kept the social hierarchy of their predecessors… long respected patriarchal and family patterns were retained education emphasized those patterns… women remained subordinate and fixed in the household… daughters became less wanted than sons and female infanticide began during this era…lower class women (peasants) still worked the fields The Manchu did their best to reduce rural tax burdens and improve the agricultural infrastructure landlords increased their land holdings and widened the socio-economic gap between rich and poor Weakness: commercialism and foreign trade…by the 18th century, silver profits had grown over sales of tea, porcelains and silks to European traders…a new merchant class emerged, …the compradors set up trade in southern China -Canton {Guangzhou}, Macao, Hong Kong

Internal Decay in Manchu China By the end of the 1700s, the Manchu were already beginning the long road to decline…the exam system had become riddled with cheating and nepotism (spoils)… military weakened from loss of revenues… dikes on the Yellow River were left in disrepair, causing great floods that killed many peasants were migrating constantly to different areas to seek relief from the government’s corrupt officials did little to address all issues, as population continued to rise, food became scarce.

The Opium Wars Meanwhile, the Manchu continued to regard Europeans as barbarians, and a confrontation emerged over the importation of opium from India Lin Zexu (a local official) blockaded Canton and destroyed any opium shipments coming; war broke out in 1839 ; Chinese defeated Treay of Nanking (Nanjing) The results were disastrous; China was forced to give concessions to Britain, including direct control of Hong Kong and open other port cities

Rebellions and Failed Reforms As a reaction to European incursions and the failure of the Manchu government to prevent them, several rebellions broke out The Taiping Rebellion – Semi-Christian prophet Hong Xiuquan led his dissidents in protest of Manchu rule…they offered social reforms, land redistribution, and the liberation of women The Sino-Japanese War – Japan took the opportunity to attack the Manchu in 1894-1895 in an attempt to gain their own imperial territory… The Boxer Rebellion – The last days of the Manchu dynasty saw the Empress Dowager Cixi in power…her political faction crushed all further attempts at reform in Chinese society…eventually, a force of foreign nations (including Japan and the US) intervened and put down this rebellion

The Fall of the Qing By the end of the 1800s, the sons of the scholar-gentry and the compradors became involved in plots to overthrow the Manchu and create new government modeled on Western ideology The most prolific leader of this movement was Sun Yat-Sen In 1911, student demonstrations, mutinies and uprisings by regional warlords against Manchu provincial rulers caused the abdication of Pu Yi, the boy emperor of China in 1912 (The Last Emperor) –China became a republic