Chapter 2 Theories of Human Development

Issues in Human Development

The Psychoanalytic Perspective  Freud ( )  Sex and aggression influence personality

The Psychoanalytic Perspective  Psychoanalysis  unconscious motives and conflicts  Techniques to expose and interpret unconscious tensions

5 Id, Ego and Superego Id - Instinctual nature of humans (anger and sex). - the pleasure principle Largely conscious, ego - mediates the demands of id and superego (reality principle). Superego provides standards for judgment (the conscience)

Chapter 3 – Personality Which horse is the Id? Superego?

Personality Structure

Freudian slip – a slip of the tongue that reveals an unconscious motive or thought

9 Exploring the Unconscious Feud asked patients to say whatever came to their mind (free association).

10 Dream Analysis interpreting the manifest and latent contents of dreams. The Nightmare, Henry Fuseli (1791)

11 Rorschach Inkblot Test 10 inkblots - designed by Hermann Rorschach

12 Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) Developed by Henry Murray,

Freud’s Psychosexual Development Conflict creates anxiety Ego defends against anxiety with defense mechanisms Early experiences have long-term effects on personality

14 Oral stage - first year of life in which the mouth is the erogenous zone and weaning is the primary conflict. Id dominated. Menu

15 Anal stage - second stage - about 2 years of age, the anus is the erogenous zone and toilet training is the source of conflict. Ego develops. –Anal expulsive personality messy, destructive, and hostile. –Anal retentive personality - neat, fussy, stingy, and stubborn.

Phallic stage years of age, in which the child discovers sexual feelings. Superego develops.

17 Oedipus Complex A boy’s sexual desires toward his mother and feelings of jealousy and hatred for the rival father. Electra complex for the girl’s desire for the father.

18 Identification Through identification their superego gains strength incorporating parents’ values. From the K. Vandervelde private collection

19 Latency - fourth stage - the sexual feelings of the child are repressed while the child develops in other ways. Genital – sexual feelings reawaken with appropriate targets. Menu

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Strengths and Weaknesses of Freud’s Theory Strengths –Awareness of unconscious motivation –Emphasized important early experience –Neo-Freudians have been influential Weaknesses –Ambiguous, inconsistent, not testable –Not supported by research

When a student asked him what was the significance of his cigar, Freud replied “sometimes a cigar is just a cigar.”

Erik Erikson (psycho-social theory) Most influential neo-Freudian Some differences with Freud –Less emphasis on sexual urges –More emphasis on rational ego –More positive and adaptive view of human nature –Believed development continues through adulthood

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Strengths and Weaknesses of Erikson Strengths –Emphasis on rational and adaptive nature –Interaction of biological & social influences –Focus on identity crisis of adolescence still most relevant Weaknesses –Sometimes vague and difficult to test –Does not explain how development comes about

Classical Conditioning  Ivan Pavlov   Russian physician/ neurophysiologist  studied digestive secretions

Behavioral Approaches Classical Conditioning - a type of learning in which an organism learns to connect or associate stimuli. 29

Classical Conditioning  Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS)  stimulus that unconditionally--automatically and naturally--triggers a response  Unconditioned Response (UCR)  unlearned, naturally occurring response to the unconditioned stimulus  salivation when food is in the mouth

Classical Conditioning  Conditioned Stimulus (CS)  originally irrelevant stimulus that, after association with an unconditioned stimulus, comes to trigger a conditioned response  Conditioned Response (CR)  learned response to a previously neutral conditioned stimulus

32 Acquisition The CS needs to come half a second before the US to cause acquisition.

Classical Conditioning: An Example Flash of camera (UCS) Blinking (UCR) Camera (NS) Flash of camera (UCS) Camera (CS) Blinking (CR) causes + = Camera (CS) causes Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2006

“coffee break.” Applications of Classical Conditioning John B. Watson ( ) Brown Brothers Psychology focuses on observable behavior

What do you think about Watson’s John B. Watson’s famous quote? “Give me a dozen healthy infants, well-formed, and my own specified world to bring them up in and I'll guarantee to take any one at random and train him to become any type of specialist I might select – doctor, lawyer, artist, merchant-chief and, yes, even beggar-man and thief, regardless of his talents, penchants, tendencies, abilities, vocations, and race of his ancestors. I am going beyond my facts and I admit it, but so have the advocates of the contrary and they have been doing it for many thousands of years.”

Conditioned emotional response Menu

Classical Conditioning Stimulus generalization After association is forged between CS and CR, learner often responds to similar stimuli as if they are the original CR. Stimulus discrimination Ability to differentiate between a particular CS and other significantly different stimuli is stimulus differentiation.

Classical Conditioning Extinction If the CS is presented time and again without being accompanied by the US, the association may fade. The CR decreases and eventually disappears in a process called extinction. Spontaneous recovery With presentation of a CS after a rest period, the CR may reappear. The CR was not forgotten, but suppressed during the extinction.

Behavioral Approaches Skinner’s Operant Conditioning Operant Behavior - operates (acts) on environment produces consequences Consequences (rewards and punishments) Reinforcement (reward) increases the probability that a behavior will occur. Punishment decreases the probability that a behavior will occur. 39

Types of Reinforcement Positive reinforcement – giving something that the person wants that increases the behavior Examples: –Praise –Teacher attention –Rewards Negative reinforcement – taking away something that the person does not want that increases the behavior –Taking away chores –Taking away time-out

Types of Punishment Positive punishment– giving something that the person does not want that decreases the behavior –Detention –Extra work Negative Punishment– taking away something that the person wants that decreases the behavior –Loss of recess –Loss of playing video games

Punishment Problems Drawbacks to severe punishment: –Fear and anxiety –Lying –Avoidance –Modeling of aggression 5.8 What are some of the problems with using punishment?

Punishment should be: –Immediate –Consistent –Paired with reinforcement for correct behaviors Making Punishment More Effective

Behavioral Approaches 44 Generalization Giving the same response to similar situations. Discrimination Differentiating among stimuli or environmental events. Extinction Previously reinforced response is no longer reinforced and the response decreases. One way to deal with a child’s temper tantrum is to ignore it resulting in extinction

bservational learning bservational learning Learning new behavior by watching a model behave

Courtesy Dr. Albert Bandura Bandura’s classic Bobo doll experiment (1961) present Bandura’s Social Cognitive Theory

Bandura: Social Cognitive Theory observational learning –BoBo doll studies –Model praised or punished or no consequence –Child learned to imitate rewarded or not punished model –Vicarious reinforcement

Production Poor motor ability inhibits reproduction of the model’s behavior. Help improve skills. Motivation When given a reinforcement, modeling increases. 48 Attention Students are more likely to be attentive to high status models (teachers). Retention Student retention will be improved when teachers give logical and clear demonstrations. 4 Processes in Observational Learning

Modeling Violence Children modeling after pro wrestlers

Social, Cognitive, and Behavioral factors play important roles in learning. Self-efficacy: The belief that one can master a situation and produce positive outcomes. 50 Bandura’s Social Cognitive Theory Personal Environment Behavior Reciprocal Determinism

Learning Theory: Strengths & Weaknesses Strengths –Precise and testable theory –Carefully controlled experiments –Practical applications across lifespan Weaknesses –Inadequate account of lifespan changes –Ignored genetic and maturational processes