English Lexicology Word Meaning and Semantic Features Week 8 Instructor: Liu Hongyong

Conventionality and Motivation How do words get meaning? Conventionality Most English words are conventional, arbitrary symbols. There is no connection between the word form and its meaning. Motivation Some English words are motivated symbols. There is some connection between the word form and its meaning.

Conventionality dom (Russion) fang zi (Chinese) maison (French) house (English) casa (Spanish) Arbitrary ( 任意的 ): you can use a word to mean any thing, and the thing becomes the meaning of the word by conventionality.

Motivation The majority of English words are non-motivated, since they are arbitrary symbols. However, there is a small group of motivated words, which means there is a direct connection between the symbol and its meaning.

Motivation Words motivated phonetically are called echoic or onomatopoeic words, whose pronunciation suggests the meaning. They show a close relation of sound and meaning. Many onomatopoeic words imitate natural sounds. Some onomatopoeic words are not completely motivated.

Onomatopoeic words miaow woof Quack hiss

Main types of word meaning Word meaning is made up of various components. These components are commonly described as types of meaning. Two main types of meaning are grammatical meaning and lexical meaning.

Grammatical meaning The grammatical meaning of a word includes the grammatical category of the lexeme, and the inflectional properties associated with the word form.

Inflectional features The set ( 集合 ) of all the word forms of a lexeme is called its paradigm ( 词形变化表 ). Nouns are declined, and verbs are conjugated. Adjectives have degrees of comparison. The lexical meaning of a word is the same throughout the paradigm, but the grammatical meaning associated with different inflectional affixes is different.

(Italian) Verb Conjugation Parlare ‘to speak’ NumberPersonPresent Indicative Present Subjunctive Past indicative Singular1ParloParliParlai 2Parli Parlasti 3ParlaParliParlo Plural1Parliamo Parlammo 2ParlateParliateParlaste 3ParlanoParlinoParlarono

(Russian) Noun Declension Kod ‘code’ CASESingularPlural NominativeKodKodi AccusativeKodKodi GenitiveKodaKodov DativeKoduKodam InstrumentalKodomKodami PrepositionalKodeKodax

Lexical Meaning Lexical meaning can be divided into:  Denotative meaning  Connotative meaning  Social meaning  Affective meaning

Denotation The denotative meaning is also called the conceptual meaning. It is the denotative in that it is concerned with the relationship between a word and the thing it denotes, or refers to. The linguistic symbol: HOUSE, 房子， case… The referent: The thing is the denotation of the word

Connotation The connotative meaning refers to the emotional association a word carries. For example, mother, denoting a ‘female parent’, is often associated with love, care, tenderness, warmth, support, etc. These connotation are not given in the dictionary, but associated with the word in the mind of readers or speakers.

The denotation of a word is the thing in the real world the word is linked to. The connotation of a word refers to the emotional associations that a word may carry. Denotation and Connotation The denotation of home is a place where one lives. The connotation of home: Where we love is home, a place where our feet may leave, but never our heart.

words that carry emotion honesty, courage, traitor, deceit love, hate, fear, joy, sorrow, damn, shit sincere, hypocritical, wonderful, skinny words that do not carry emotion in, on, at, within so, but, since, because, though a, an, the he, she, my, mine book, lamp, desk, window, door add, subtract, swim, run, read Words with/without Emotion

Connotative meaning Negative There are 2,000 vagrants in the city. Neutral There are 2,000 people with no fixed addresses in the city. Positive There are 2,000 homeless in the city. All three of these expressions refer to the same people, but they will invoke different emotive associations in the readers’ mind: a ‘vagrant’ is a public nuisance, while a homeless person is a worthy object of pity and charity.

Social or Stylistic Meaning Social meaning is that which a piece of language conveys about the social circumstance of its use. Under different social circumstances, we have different styles. Martin Joos (1967) recognized five different styles using the criterion of formality  Frozen  Formal  Consultative  Casual  Intimate

Stylistic Meaning The frozen and formal styles occur in written report. Consultative, casual, and intimate styles occur in everyday use.  Consultative style is a polite and fairly neutral style, used when we are talking to a person whom we do not know well.  Casual and intimate styles are used in conversation between friends. We can simplify the styles into three levels: formal, neutral, and informal

Affective Meaning Affective meaning is concerned with the attitudes of the speaker or writer. In English, some words can express the speakers’ approval or disapproval of the persons or things he is talking about. Words that show speakers’ approval are purr words. Words that show speakers’ disapproval are snarl words.

Affective Meaning Snarl words are marked derog. (=derogatory). Purr words are marked apprec.(=appreciatory). snarl wordspurr wordssnarl wordspurr words stupidinnocentnotoriousfamous cunning clever politicianstatesman skinnyslendercomplacencyconfident miserlythriftynosycurious diepass awayfat plump

Componential Analysis The analysis of word meaning is often seen as a process of breaking down the sense of a word into its minimal components, which are known as semantic features or sense components. manwomanchild [+human] [+adult] [-adult] [+male][-male][+/-male]

Componential Analysis Man: [+human, +adult, +male] Woman: [+human, +adult, -male] Boy: [???] Girl: [???] manwomanboygirl [+human] [+adult] [+male][-male] We can use three semantic features to define four words

Semantic Features In making componential analysis, it is important to focus on the defining features,i.e. features which can distinguish one word from another. horse, cat, machine, chair [+/-animate] road, house, thought, philosophy [+/-concrete] water, gas, stone, tree [+/-count] sit, cry, read, give [+/-transitive]

Advantages of CA CA can help us see clearly different sense relations. For example, if two words share the same semantic features, they are synonyms. CA can help us choose the right word in collocation. A month/an hour elapsed. [+Time] *A bike/a person elapsed. [-Time]

Disadvantages of CA We cannot find a set of features that capture what is common in meaning for all words. The analysis of word meaning into its sense components is not enough. It does not include other types of meanings. For example, “Be a man!”. Here we cannot use CA to explain the word “man”. Sometimes words can be used figuratively. For example, threaten requires an animate object, for one can only threaten something animate. threaten one’s enemy threaten someone’s security