Bases of Inequality Coercion - Armed Force to ensure that have-nots fulfill obligations - Elites dependant on support of foreign power - Power only shared across class lines when those below show organization and potential use of force Hegemony - Ideology: changes over time

Participants at Independence HACENDADOSCHURCH MILITARYFOREIGN POWERS (US and Britain replace Spain and Portugal)

New Groups gain Participation 1. Late 19 th : Commercial Sector Associated with Export and Import 2. Early 20 th : Industrial Elites and Middle Classes s/30s: Labor Begins Organizing (not real player in most countries until 1940s/50s) 4. Peasants (slowest to achieve participation)

Becoming a Participant Military Faction (by seizing garrisons) Peasants (by seizing land) Student group (demonstrating ability to turn out numbers for march) Political Party (getting votes)

Today’s Actors LAND OWNERS INDUSTRIAL/ COMMERCIAL ELITES RELIGIOUS LEADERS MILITARY FACTIONS LABOR UNIONS POLITICAL PARTIES STUDENT/ INTELLECTUAL LEADERS FOREIGN CORPORA- TIONS FOREIGN GOVTS/ AGENCIES

Arenas and “Weapons” of Political Action 1. Least Developed: Private Arena of family pressure, blackmail, contacts, bribery, graft 2. Most Developed: Public Arena of elections, debates, judicial review 3. Intermediate Arenas: “The Streets” – strikes, riots, demonstrations

Social Change Can be stimulated by new or imported ideologies (Marxism, Liberalism, Indigenismo, Liberation Theology) Can be stimulated by new actors (development agencies, immigrant labor leaders) Can be stimulated by disasters (earthquakes, wars, economic collapse)

3 Main Processes 1. EVOLUTION (incorporation of new actors, representing previously unrepresented social strata, without displacement of previous participants in system) REVOLUTION (displacement of groups representing one or more strata from the upper reaches of social pyramid) COUNTER-REVOLUTION (displacement or elimination of effective participation of groups representing strata from the base of the social pyramid)

EVOLUTION Most developed in Southern Cone and Costa Rica Easier to admit new groups in periods of economic expansion Middle class gets access through parties; requires some support of working classes, so makes some concessions (social programs) Working class participation rarer Reversed in periods of economic decline

REVOLUTION 2 stages of violence Haiti (1804) Mexico (1911) Bolivia (1952) Cuba (1959) Nicaragua (1979)

Factors that Block Evolutionary Nonviolent Change 1. Great social distance between elites and masses 2. Close ties between dominant power and client state 3. Physical uprooting of subject populations

Phases of Revolution 1. Power Transfer 2. Class Demolition and Redistribution 3. Institutionalization

COUNTERREVOLUTION Guatemala (1954) Brazil (1964) Bolivia (1964) Chile (1973) Uruguay (1973) Argentina (1966, 1976)

Facilitating Factors for Counterrevolution 1. Economic deterioriation, especially runaway inflation 2. Threat to military 3. Help or neutrality of dominant foreign power

Phases of Counterrevolution 1. Consolidation 2. Political Demobilization 3. Economic Transformation 4. Institutionalization 5. Decompression