Lecture 3 on Individual Optimization Uncertainty Up until now we have been treating bidders as expected wealth maximizers, and in that way treating their approach to uncertainty in the simplest possible manner. This lecture is an introduction to behavior under uncertainty. We begin with a discussion of uncertainty and maximizing expected value. Then we explain the independence axiom and the expected utility theorem. This leads us into experiments evidence that test the independence axiom.

Lotteries Perhaps the easiest way to model uncertainty is to view the set of possible outcomes as a lottery in which the probabilities are known. A lottery L is defined by L possible prizes, denoted by x 1 through x L, and L probabilities, denoted by p 1 through p L where p 1 + p p L =1 So if a person plays the lottery, outcome l = 1,2,...,L occurs with probability p l, and in that event she receives a prize of x l.

An example Say there are three (mutually exclusive) career outcomes, in engineering x 1, business x 2 and telemarketing, valued at x 3. The probability of each outcome depends on how spend your time at college. Networking at college in clubs and classes will yield a lottery of (0.0, 0.8, 0.2), practicing your spin skills with friends will produce probabilities of (0.2, 0.1, 0.7), but if you study hard, the probabilities are (0.6, 0.2, 0.2).

Graphing the lottery The figure shows the space of lotteries over these three outcomes,and indicates the lotteries generated by these three behavior patterns. Probability of engineering Probability of telemarketing 1 1 network spinstudy

Simple versus compound lotteries The previous slides define simple lotteries. A compound lottery is defined by forming a lottery over several other lotteries. We might consider K lotteries denoted by L k where k = 1,2,...,K. The probability of lottery L k occurring is given by q k. The probability of outcome l occurring is then: p 1l q 1 + p 2l q p Ll q K where p kl is the probability that lottery k yields outcome l.

A reduced lottery For example if the probability that you will study is 0.5, the probability if you network is 0.3 and the probability of spinning tales with friends is 0.2, then you are facing compound lottery of how you behave, which determines your career prospects. A reduced lottery can be formed by calculating the odds of each outcome occurring from playing the compound lottery. In this example, the probability of a career in telemarketing is: 0.5* * *0.7 = 0.3

Are compound and reduced lotteries fundamentally different? It is useful to know whether people are indifferent between playing in reduced lotteries and the compound lotteries which generated them. We consider the following choices over the lotteries, which seek to reveal whether subjects inherently prefer one or the other type.

Testing whether compound and simple lotteries are equivalent Problem 1: The decision maker chooses between three simple lotteries: Option A: (q,0) and option B: (0,1). Problem2: The decision maker faces a lottery in which, with probability (1-r), she receives x3 and, with probability r, she faces a subsequent choice between two options, each of which is a simple prospect: Option A: (q,0) and option B: (0,1). The decision maker faces a lottery in which, with probability (1-r), she receives x3 and, with probability r, she received one of the options listed below, each of which is a simple prospect. She is required to choose which option to receive before the initial lottery is resolved. Option A: (q,0) and option B: (0,1).

Test of expected utility continues Problem 4: The decision maker faces a choice between two compound lotteries: Option A: First stage gives x3 with probability (1-r) and the simple prospect (q,0) with probability r; Option B: First stage gives x3 with probability (1-r) and the simple prospect (0,1) with probability r. Problem 5: The decision-maker chooses between two simple lotteries: Option A: (rq, 0), Option B: (0,r)

Ambiguity defining the lotteries We don’t always know the probabilities of the different outcomes, and that can affect the choices we make. However the fact that the subjective probabilities that rational experimental subjects form over the outcomes over the outcomes must sum to one generates some testable restrictions on their behavior. Consider the following experiment:

Ellsberg paradox

Maximizing expected value under uncertainty How would people choose between two simple well defined lotteries? Would they select the lottery that Minimizes their maximum loss? Maximizes their expected winnings? Both are plausible criteria, yet at a conceptual level they seem arbitrary and narrow.

Independence axiom The independence axiom is a sensible premise if you believe there is no fundamental difference between a compound lottery and its reduced lottery. It states the following: Consider any three lotteries, denoted by L 1, L 2, and L 3, plus any number z in the [0,1] interval. Suppose L 1 is preferred to L 2. Then the simple lottery [z L 1 +(1-z) L 3 ] is preferred to [z L 2 +(1-z) L 3 ].

Indifference curves over lotteries Setting L 2 = L 3, we see that if a person is indifferent between L 1 and L 2, then they are also indifferent between L 1 and [z L 1 +(1-z) L 2 ] for all z in the [0,1] interval. In other words the indifference sets are convex. If a person has strict preferences over each lottery outcome, and his preferences are continuous in the lottery space, you can always improve his welfare from an interior point within the lottery space. This implies that when the lotteries have only 3 outcomes, the indifference sets are parallel straight lines.

Illustrating the independence axiom We can simply illustrate the preferences with indifference curves over lotteries that the independence axiom imposes when there are only three outcomes. Probability of engineering Probability of telemarketing How do preferences determine the slope of the indifference curves and the direction of utility increase? (0,0) (0,1) (1,0)

Expected utility theorem If a rational person obeys the independence axiom then we can construct a utility function to represent his preferences that is linear in the probability weights. In other words the independence axiom implies that a person’s utility function can be modeled as: p 1 u(x 1 ) + p 2 u(x 2 ) p L u(x L ) or more generally as E F [u(x)] where F is a lottery or probability distribution over x and E F is the expectations operator.

Testing the expected utility theorem There are two tests of the independence axiom, and by implication, the expected utility theorem: 1. We can test the axiom directly to see if subjects switch their preferred lottery, depending on whether they are certain they have the choice or not. This test directly compares compound with simple lotteries. 2. We can test whether the indifference curves over simple lotteries from parallel lines or not