China – Impact of the Past and Key Institutions

“Let China sleep. For when China wakes, it will shake the world “Let China sleep. For when China wakes, it will shake the world.” - Napoleon Bonaparte

Introduction Ancient China was arguably one of the strongest, richest empires in existence Western countries have tended to either ignore or exploit China in world politics Today Is world power, partly b/c of improvements in GNP & standard of living Membership in WTO, travel frequently to other countries, active part in UN Steady move toward capitalism leads some to think democratization was on its way – but gov’t remains authoritarian w/ no change in sight Provides evidence that marketization & democracy don’t always go together

Tradition of Sovereignty, Authority, & Power Until 20th Century – history characterized by dynastic cycles – long periods of rule by a family punctuated by times of “chaos”, when the family lost its power & challenged by a new ruling dynasty Power determined by mandate of heaven – right to rule as seen by the collective ancestral wisdom that guided the empire from the heavens above Public authority rested w/ emperor & his bureaucracy that exercised highly centralized power

After chaos in early 20th century – Mao Zedong took over China in 1949 Technically governed by a constitution that grants formal authority to both party and state executive and legislative offices However, is still governed by an authoritarian elite not bound by rule of law As long as rulers are above the law, constitution will not be a source of legitimacy for the state

Historical Traditions Authoritarian Power – borders have changed over time, but has long been a huge, land-based empire Citizens traditionally been subjects of, not participants in, political system Ruling family has always been subject to attack from regional warlords who challenged their right to the mandate of heaven Tendency toward decentralization is apparent in modern regime as centralized politburo attempts to control its vast population, numerous policies, problems Middle Kingdom (“zhong-guo”) or the place that is the center of civilization Foreigners seen as barbarians w/ civilization inferior to China’s In terms of power & quality of life China almost always assumed no one else had much to offer them Traditional assumptions challenged, but not destroyed by imperialist powers in 19th century

Confucianism – philosophy has shaped the Chinese political system since 6th century BCE Emphasized importance of order & harmony Encouraged Chinese citizens to submit to the emperor’s power Reinforced emperors’ responsibility to fulfill his duties This may be tied to democratic centralism (communist belief in a small group of leaders who rule for the good of the people) Still a major influence on society today Contradicts w/ egalitarian ideology of communism w/ it’s central belief in unequal relationships & mutual respect among people of different statuses

Bureaucratic hierarchy based on scholarship Emperors surrounded themselves w/ highly organized bureaucracies that formed an elite based on Confucian scholarship Gov’t jobs coveted, competitive, small % actually mastering the examination system Exams were knowledge based Be well versed in Confucianism & related philosophies Major social separation in Ancient China – between large peasant population & bureaucratic elite

Communist Ideologies – new influence of Maoism Emphasized “right thinking” & moralism of Confucianism Contradicted hierarchical nature of the old regime w/ insistence on egalitarianism Late 20th century brought Deng Xiaoping Theory – practical mix of authoritarian political control & economic privatization

Confucianism & Maoism Maoism Confucianism Democratic Centralism (responsibility of ruler to the people) Vision of ideal society based on self-reliance & struggle Egalitarian social structure; mass line between rulers & subjects Emphasis on loyalty to the state, Mao Confucianism Mandate of Heaven (responsibility of ruler to the people) Vision of an ideal society based on harmony & obedience Hierarchical social & political organization; rulers & subjects have unequal positions Emphasis on loyalty to the family

Political Culture multi-dimensional, shaped by geographical features & history Geographic influences Largest population on earth 3rd largest land area (after Russia, Canada) Access to oceans / ice free ports Many large navigable rivers Major geographical / climate splits between N & S Geographic isolation of western part of country Mountain ranges, deserts, oceans separate China from other countries

Historical Eras Dynastic Rule: centers on Confucian values (order, harmony, strong sense of hierarchy) Traditionally valued scholarship as way to establish superiority Early relative isolation from other countries contributed to strong sense of cultural identity High degree of ethnocentrism – sense China is central to humanity & superior to other cultures Centuries of expansion have brought many other Asian people under Chinese control, resulting in long-standing conflict between “Han” Chinese & other groups (i.e. Tibet) Resistance to imperialism: sense of cultural identity turned into nationalism during 19th century Persistent attempts to exploit China’s resources & people by imperialist countries (Britain, Germany, France, Japan) Nationalism secured by Revolution of 1911 & hatred of “foreign devils” has led China to be cautious in her dealings w/ capitalist countries today

Maoism: Mao Zedong strongly influenced by Karl Marx & Lenin, but his version of communism distinctly suited to China’s needs Mao resisted inequality implied by Lenin’s beliefs Mao believed in strength of the peasant, centered his philosophy on these central values: Collectivism: good of the community is valued above that of the individual – suited to peasant-based communities, scholars always drawn toward individualism Struggle & activism: Mao encouraged the people to actively pursue values of socialism, which he understood would require struggle & devotion Mass line: line of communication between party leaders, members, & peasants that would allow all to struggle toward realization of goals of communist state. It involved teaching & listening on everyone’s part. Leaders would communicate their will & direction to the people, but the people would communicate through mass line their wisdoms to the leaders.

Deng Xiaoping Theory: practical approach to solving China’s problems Egalitarianism: hierarchy was key organizing principle in Chinese society before 1949; Mao’s emphasis on egalitarian society in complete opposition Self-reliance: people under Maoist rule were encouraged to rely on their own talents to contribute to their communities Deng Xiaoping Theory: practical approach to solving China’s problems Didn’t worry about whether a policy was capitalist or socialist as long as it improved the economy Result of his leadership (1978-1997) Dramatic turnaround of Chinese economy through combination of socialist planning & capitalist free market Political & social views did remain true to Communist tradition – Party should supervise all, now allowances for individual freedoms and / or democracy “It doesn’t matter whether a cat is white or black, as long as it catches mice” – Deng, 1962

Legitimacy Traditions Under dynastic rule, Chinese citizens subjects of the emperor Legitimacy established through mandate of heaven, power passed through hereditary connections As long as things go well – emperor’s authority generally accepted When problems appeared – dynasty weakened, rival families challenged the throne, saying ruling family had lost its mandate Legitimacy not for peasants to determine, but popular rebellions / unrest served as signs the emperor failing

Revolution of 1911 – created Chinese Republic w/ western educated Sun Yat-sen as 1st president Supposed to be democracy w/ legitimacy resting on popular gov’t Regional warlords challenged the gov’t Emerging from chaos – Mao Zedong w/ own version of authoritarianism: Maoism People’s Republic of China established 1949 Mao led Communist Party until death in 1976 Maoism is idealistic & egalitarian (even though it endorsed centralized power exercised through top leaders of Party) Stressed importance of mass line

Politburo of Communist Party remains legitimate source of power, but leadership has come under great deal of criticism in recent years Party is said to be corrupt & irrelevant, holding authoritarian power over increasingly market-based economy Rebellions & criticisms more frequent since Tiananmen Square incident in 1989 How serious a threat the criticisms are to current regime is matter of debate Current leaders show no signs of loosening Party’s hold on gov’t & economy Important source of power – military! Played central role in rise of Communist Party Is represented in gov’t by the Central Military Commission Head of commission plays important role in policy-making

Political & Economic Change Change before 1949 Dynastic cycles Control by imperialistic nations Qing Dynasty fell to imperialistic nations – England, Germany, France, Japan – carved China into spheres of influence for economic gain Chinese resentful of foreign devils they eventually fought against

Revolutionary Upheavals – themes of revolutionary era (1911-1949) Nationalism – wished to recapture strength & power from imperialist nations Revolution of 1911 under Sun Yat-sen successfully reestablished China as independent country Establishing a new political community – what kind of new gov’t would China have w/o imperialist countries? Chiang Kai-shek founded Nationalist Party (Guomindang) Mao Zedong founded Chinese Communist Party (CCP) Socioeconomic development – reestablish strong economic & social fabric after imperialism During 1920s Soviet Union served as a model for policymaking, but Nationalists broke w/ them in 1928 Chiang Kai-shek became president of China Mao & Communists left as an “outlaw party”

The Founding of the People’s Republic of China – 1949-1966 After WWII – civil war; Mao & communists prevailed! Chiang fled to Taiwan (Formosa); claimed his headquarters was true Chinese gov’t Mao established People’s Republic under communist rule “Two Chinas” were created / PRC not recognized by UN as a nation until 1972

Early Political Development of PRC in 2 phases: The Soviet Model (1949-1957) – USSR supporting Mao’s efforts, began pouring $$ & expertise into PRC, w/ attention on most glaring problems: Land reform – redistributed property & increased productivity in the countryside Civil reform – freeing people from opium addiction, enhance women’s legal rights Five-year plans – first in 1953-1957

The Great Leap Forward – Mao changed directions 1958 in an effort to free China from Soviet domination Spirit of nationalism! Mao still unhappy w/ the degree of inequality in society Was utopian effort to transform China into radical egalitarian society Mainly economic emphasis all around development: = attention to industry & agriculture Mass mobilization: turn size of population into asset – better motivation, harder work, less unemployment Political unanimity & zeal: emphasis on party workers running gov’t; cadres: party workers at lowest levels were expected to demonstrate party devotion by spurring the people on to work as hard as they could Decentralization: encouraged more gov’t on the local level, less central control Didn’t live up to its name – Mao’s efforts ran against traditional political culture & the people lacked skills to contribute to industrialization

Cultural Revolution – 1966-1976 Between 1960-1966 allowed Liu Shaoqi & Deng Xiaoping to include some market-oriented policies to revive economy To continue push toward egalitarianism introduced Cultural Revolution w/ goal to purify the party & the country through radical transformation Principles included: The ethic of struggle Mass line Collectivism Egalitarianism Unstinting service to society

Mao died in 1976; followers divided into factions: Primary goal of the Cultural Revolution to remove all vestiges of the old China Scholars sent to fields to work, universities & libraries were destroyed Emphasis on elementary education But any education that created inequality was targeted for destruction Mao died in 1976; followers divided into factions: Radicals – led by Mao’s wife, Jiang Qing; supported Cultural Revolution Military – led by Lin Biao, who died in mysterious plane crash in 1971; powerful group b/c of long-lasting 20th century struggles Moderates – led by Zhou Enlai; emphasized economic modernization, limited contact w/ other countries including the US; Zhou influenced Mao to invite Nixon to China in 1972 Members of these factions not only tied to each other through common purpose, but also through personal relationships, illustrating importance of informal politics throughout Chinese history

Deng Xiaoping’s Modernizations (1978-1997) Deng new leader of Moderates by 1978 His vision drastically altered China’s direction through Four Modernizations which have been heart of official policy ever since Industry Agriculture Science Military

Deng’s policies helped implement the new direction: “open door” trade policy – trade w/ everyone encouraged, including capitalists nations Reforms in education – higher academic standards & expansion of higher education & research to reverse policy of Cultural Revolution Institutionalization of the Revolution – revolutionary goals were reconciled w/ restoring legal system & bureaucracy of the Old China, decentralizing gov’t, modifying elections, capitalism!

4 Generations of Leadership 1st Generation: Mao Zedong, Zhou Enlai, Liu Shaoqi Started PRC All were both military and political leaders Formative experiences: Long March, Chinese Civil War Educated in China 2nd Generation: Deng Xiaoping, Chen Yun, Hu Yaobang, Hua Guofang Juniors in Chinese Revolution Formative experiences: Long March, Chinese Civil War, Cultural Revolution Educated outside of China – mostly France

Mao Zedong Deng Xiaoping

3rd Generation: Jiang Zemin, Zhao, Li Peng, Zhu Rongji Educated prior to Sino-Soviet split Educated in Soviet Union as engineers, worked as factory managers Split between political and military leadership Formative experiences: Sino-Japanese War, Korean War 4th Generation: Hu Jintao, Wen Jaibo, Zeng Qinghong Promoted to leadership during 16th Party Congress, expected to remain in power until 18th Party Congress, 2012 Most were engineers, educations interrupted by Cultural Revolution Have spent little time overseas

Jiang Zemin Hu Jintao Wen Jiabao

Political Institutions Political regime best categorized as authoritarian (decisions are made by political elites – those that hold power – w/o much input from citizens) Leaders recruited through membership in Party Personal relationships & informal ties are also important in deciding who controls the regime Same struggle – how to effectively govern huge expanse of land & large population from one centralized location Moving toward market economy – centralization has become even more problematic As result: major feature of economic decision-making is now decentralization (devolution to sub-national gov’ts) Local gov’ts often defy / ignore central gov’t by setting own taxes, or building projects w/o consulting central gov’t

The Chinese Communist Party (CCP): Political framework of PRC is designed to penetrate as many corners of the country as possible w/ an elaborately organized CCP Party personnel control gov’t structures Integrates military into political hierarchy Political elites recruited from military & the head of the Central Military Commission is among most powerful leaders Party is still at heart of political system Bases its claim to legitimacy on representation of historical best interest of all the people Society is best led by elite vanguard party w/ superior understanding of Chinese people & their needs (democratic centralism)

Organization of the CCP – hierarchically by all levels – village/township, county, province, nation Head of gov’t now called “general secretary” Party has own constitution separate from gov’t’s constitution of 1982 Central bodies are: National Party Congress: 2000 delegates chosen primarily from congresses on lower levels Only meets every 5 years, so isn’t very important in policymaking Usually rubberstamps party leaders’ decisions Main importance – power to elect members of the Central Committee Central Committee: 340 members that meet annually for about 1 week Carry on business of National Party Congress between sessions Size & infrequent meetings limit policymaking powers Meetings called plenums & are important b/c are gatherings of political elites Politburo & Standing Committee members chosen from ranks

Politburo / Standing Committee: most powerful political organizations Chosen by Central Committee Decisions dictate gov’t policies Politburo has 24 members Standing Committee is chosen from Politburo, has 7 members; meet in secret; membership reflects balance of power among factions & relative influence of different groups in policymaking

Non-communist Parties PRC effectively has 1 party system CCP does allow 8 “democratic” parties Each party has special group it draws from (i.e. intellectuals) Total membership about ½ M Don’t contest CCP for control of gov’t Serve important advisory role to party leaders; loyal non-opposition Attempts to establish independent democratic parties outside CCP control have been squashed

Elections Held in order to legitimize the gov’t & CCP Party controls commissions that run elections, reviews draft lists of proposed candidates Only direct elections are at local level, w/ voters choosing deputies to serve on county people’s congresses Since 1980s party has allowed more than one candidate to run for county positions, most candidates nominated by the people Move toward democracy at the village level, where local officials are chosen in direct, secret ballot elections, not appointed from above!

Institutions of Government Political structure of PRC seen as 3 parallel hierarchies that are separate yet interact w/ each other The Communist Party The state or government The People’s Liberation Army The Party dominates the 3 Relationship between the party & the gov’t is controlled by the principle of dual role – vertical supervision of the next higher level of gov’t & horizontal supervision of the Communist Party at their own level On paper – organization of party & state are similar to the former USSR, largely b/c it was designed by the Soviets 1949-1958 In reality, China’s policymaking governed by factions & personal relationships

The Structure of the Gov’t 3 branches: legislature, executive, judiciary All are controlled by the Party, so not independent, no system of checks & balances All top positions held by Party members The People’s Congress Gov’t authority formally vested in system of people’s congresses, begins w/ People’s National Congress at top & continues in hierarchical levels down through provincial, city, local congresses Theoretically: they are people’s legislatures, in reality, are subject to party authority National Congress chooses president & VP of China but only one-party sponsored candidate for each position Congress itself has no power, but important b/c is where Politburo’s decisions are formally announced

Executive / Bureaucracy President & VP serve 5 year terms, limited to 2 terms, be at least 45 years old Positions largely ceremonial, though senior party leaders have always held them Currently, Hu Jintao is both president & general secretary of CCP Premier is head of gov’t, formally appointed by president Always held by member of Standing Committee Current Premier: Wen Jiabao Directs State Council (composed of ministers who direct the many ministries & commissions of bureaucracy) – controlled by dual role Bureaucracy exists on all levels Lower level positions held by cadres – people in positions of authority who are paid by the gov’t or party

The Judiciary 4-tiered “people’s court” system hierarchical, just as the people’s congresses are Nationwide organization – “people’s protectorate” – provides public prosecutors & defenders in courts Came under attack during Cultural Revolution as bastion of elitism & reform, & law was subjected to the leaders Recent decades: has been revitalized New judges & lawyers have been trained New law codes instituted No structure for judicial review Judicial system remains subservient to party hierarchy Works swiftly & harshly – with a conviction rate of >99% of all cases that come to trial Human rights organizations criticize China for extensive use of the death penalty

The People’s Liberation Army (PLA) Encompasses all air, naval, & ground services 3M active personnel, 12M in reserves In proportion to population, Chinese military presence smaller than the US China: 2.4 military personnel for every 1,000 people US: 6.1 military personnel for every 1,000 people Military spending only ¼ of US spending But military spending has increased dramatically in most recent years Never held formal political power, but has been important influence on politics & policy All of early political leaders were also military leaders Represented in gov’t by Central Military Committee Tiananmen in 1989 harmed image of PLA, since military ordered to recapture the square w/ brutal force But does still retain influence in Chinese politics 2 of 24 members in Politburo are military officers, 20% of Central Committee are PLA representatives