THE FLOW OF GENETIC INFORMATION FROM DNA TO RNA TO PROTEIN A specific gene specifies a polypeptide The DNA is transcribed into RNA, which is translated into the polypeptide DNA TRANSCRIPTION RNA TRANSLATION Protein

The “words” of the DNA “language” are triplets of bases called codons The codons in a gene specify the amino acid sequence of a polypeptide

Gene 1 Gene 3 Gene 2 Codon Amino acid DNA molecule Gene 2 DNA strand TRANSCRIPTION RNA Codon TRANSLATION Polypeptide Amino acid Figure 10.7

Virtually all organisms share the same genetic code CODON TRANSLATION Virtually all organisms share the same genetic code 64 Codons total (4 x 4 x 4) AUG = Start (Met) 3 Stops Redundant, but NOT ambiguous Figure 10.8A

An exercise in translating the genetic code Transcribed strand DNA Transcription RNA Start codon Stop codon Translation Polypeptide Figure 10.8B

Where does RNA come from: TRANSCRIPTION RNA nucleotide RNA polymerase Direction of transcription Template strand of DNA Newly made RNA Figure 10.9A

In transcription, the DNA helix unzips RNA polymerase In transcription, the DNA helix unzips DNA of gene Promoter DNA Terminator DNA Promoter: turns a gene on/off RNA nucleotides line up along one strand of the DNA following the base-pairing rules The single-stranded messenger RNA peels away and the DNA strands rejoin Initiation Elongation Area shown in Figure 10.9A Termination Growing RNA Completed RNA RNA polymerase Figure 10.9B

RNA Processing: Splicing Exons & Discarding Introns Noncoding segments called introns are spliced out A cap and a tail are added to the ends Exon Intron Exon Intron Exon DNA Transcription Addition of cap and tail Cap RNA transcript with cap and tail Introns removed Tail Exons spliced together mRNA Coding sequence NUCLEUS CYTOPLASM Figure 10.10

TRANSLATION: tRNA helps assemble the polypeptide chain (amino acids) In the cytoplasm, a ribosome attaches to the mRNA and translates its message into a polypeptide The process is aided by transfer RNAs Amino acid attachment site Hydrogen bond RNA polynucleotide chain Anticodon Figure 10.11A

Each tRNA molecule has a triplet anticodon on one end and an amino acid attachment site on the other Figure 10.11B, C

Ribosomes build polypeptides Next amino acid to be added to polypeptide Growing polypeptide tRNA molecules P site A site Growing polypeptide Large subunit tRNA P A mRNA mRNA binding site Codons mRNA Small subunit Figure 10.12A-C

mRNA, a specific tRNA, and the ribosome Large ribosomal subunit Initiator tRNA P site A site Start codon Small ribosomal subunit mRNA 1 2 Figure 10.13B

Amino acids are added to the polypeptide chain until a stop Codon is reached The mRNA moves a codon at a time A tRNA pairs with each codon, adding an amino acid to the growing polypeptide

Amino acid Polypeptide A site P site Anticodon mRNA 1 Codon recognition mRNA movement Stop codon New peptide bond 2 Peptide bond formation 3 Translocation Figure 10.14

Review: The flow of genetic information in the cell is DNARNAprotein The sequence of codons in DNA spells out the primary structure of a polypeptide Polypeptides form proteins that cells and organisms use

Summary of transcription and translation DNA Stage mRNA is transcribed from a DNA template. 1 mRNA RNA polymerase Amino acid TRANSLATION Stage Each amino acid attaches to its proper tRNA with the help of a specific enzyme and ATP. 2 Enzyme tRNA Initiator tRNA Anticodon Stage Initiation of polypeptide synthesis 3 Large ribosomal subunit The mRNA, the first tRNA, and the ribosomal subunits come together. Start Codon Small ribosomal subunit mRNA Figure 10.15

New peptide bond forming Growing polypeptide Stage Elongation 4 A succession of tRNAs add their amino acids to the polypeptide chain as the mRNA is moved through the ribosome, one codon at a time. Codons mRNA Polypeptide Stage Termination 5 The ribosome recognizes a stop codon. The poly-peptide is terminated and released. Stop Codon Figure 10.15 (continued)

Mutations can change the meaning of genes Mutations are changes in the DNA base sequence These are caused by errors in DNA replication or by mutagens The change of a single DNA nucleotide causes sickle-cell disease

Sickle-cell hemoglobin Normal hemoglobin DNA Mutant hemoglobin DNA mRNA mRNA Normal hemoglobin Sickle-cell hemoglobin Glu Val Figure 10.16A

Types of mutations NORMAL GENE mRNA Protein Met Lys Phe Gly Ala BASE SUBSTITUTION Met Lys Phe Ser Ala BASE DELETION Missing Met Lys Leu Ala His Figure 10.16B