An Introduction to Philosophical Thought Philosophy 1100YE An Introduction to Philosophical Thought

What is “philosophy”? “philos”(the love of) + “sophia”(wisdom) Historically: philosophy is merely the study of anything whatsoever, unconstrained by tradition or custom Pythagoras: as against the ‘sophists’ (professional teachers of wisdom), philosophers are amateurs

Philosophy & the disciplines The original ‘discipline’ (systematic and sustained study) which gave rise to all the other disciplines, e.g. ‘natural philosophy’ becomes ‘science’ It is not an ‘ology’, i.e. a study of X; it has no specific subject matter It is a way of studying (once: a way of life), a set of methods or approaches, a ‘knowing how’ rather than a ‘knowing that’

Myths (& facts) Myth: “philosophy is like religion”; Fact: religions involve dogmas, there are no dogmas in philosophy (that is, no claims which must be accepted on authority) Myth: “philosophy is deep”; Fact: it’s only as ‘deep’ as the issue in question; rather, philosophy aims to be ‘exoteric’ not ‘esoteric’ Myth: “philosophers ask unanswerable questions”; Fact: 1) truly unanswerable questions point to problems, and it is of some value to be aware of these problems; 2) asking questions uncovers basic assumptions which, if they are left unexamined, lead to error and frustration

What philsophers do now Logic: the study of standards and procedures for correct reasoning (formal and informal) Epistemology: the study of standards and conditions for knowledge (and associated concepts such as belief, opinion, truth) Metaphysics: the study of basic conditions and requirements for, and the nature of the world Axiology: the study of value -- 1) ethics: moral value; 2) aesthetics: art & beauty

Philosophical ‘problems’ Philosophy is the history of, and present engagement with, attempts to give solutions to problems of a peculiar kind (negatively: all those not addressed by the special sciences) -- philosophical problems Q: What is a philosophical problem? A: a problem expressible only in terms of the vocabulary of, and solvable only by the methods of, philosophy (just as a mathematical problem is one expressible only in terms of, and solvable only by the methods of, mathematics; e.g. “give a proof of: every even number is the sum of two primes”)

An example: The Ship Puzzle A Greek legend has it that Theseus of Athens rescued a number of sacrificial maidens from Thebes and returned them to Athens in his ship. That ship was for many years displayed in Athens (Plutarch says that it was still on display as late as 280BC). Over the years, many parts of the ship had been replaced, until such time that it was a matter of some doubt whether any of the original parts of the ship remained. A person visiting Athens at the time might legitimately ask: is this the same ship in which Theseus returned to Athens? What would be the correct answer to this question?

One Possible Answer The case for ship X: 1. The ship in Dock A at minute 0 is the Spirit of Athens. 2. Replacing one plank of a 1000-plank ship does not alter the identity of the ship. 3. The ship in Dock A at minute t differs from the ship in Dock A at minute 0 only in that one oak plank has been replaced by a teak plank. 4. So the ship in Dock A at minute t is the Spirit of Athen. (from 1,2,3) 5. We can repeat this pattern of reasoning for each subsequent minute, reaching the intermediate conclusion that the ship in Dock A is the Spirit of Athens. 6. So the ship in Dock A at minute 1000t is the Spirit of Athens. 7. But ship X is the ship in Dock A at minute 1000t. 8. Hence, ship X is Theseus’ ship, the Spirit of Athens.

Another Possible Answer The case for ship Y: 1. A complex whole object (such as a ship) is nothing but the sum of its parts in a determinate arrangement. 2. The parts of Theseus’ ship, the Spirit of Athens, are the 1000 sound and seaworthy oak planks of which it is composed at minute 0. 3. The parts of ship Y are the 1000 sound and seaworthy oak planks of which it is composed at minute 1000t. 4. But every plank which is a part of ship Y is (identical to) a plank which is a part of the Spirit of Athens. 5. Futhermore, the arrangement of the planks composing ship Y is (plank-for-plank) identical to the arrangement of the planks composing the Spirit of Athens. 6. Hence, ship Y is Theseus’ ship, the Spirit of Athens. (from 1,4,5)

Lessons from the preceding puzzle Rule 1: Any opinion for which one can give reasons is admissible in philosophy, but once a claim has been supported by an argument, subsequent criticism must then engage the argument. (there is no Rule 2) The problem is not derived from a lack of facts (nor is it solvable by discovering more); it is therefore not a factual problem (not a scientifc problem, not a problem about ships) It is derived from concepts (e.g. “this is the same as that”) which we make use of every day, and of which we believe we have an adequate grasp