Third Exam Thursday 3 December 2015 Chapters 11-15, 17-18 plus 8 readings Energy Money Peak Oil Land Food Water Sewage Space Travel Final Exam 9 December 2-5 PM

Microbiome, antibiotics, Germs R us, appendix =“bomb shelter” Challenges facing Parasites, hosts as islands, how to infect new ones? Host specificity, high fecundities, exploitation of vectors (mosquitoes) Intermediate and final hosts, host altered behavior (rabies, etc.) Assassin bugs (Triatoma), contact, blood sucking, Chagas’s Disease Malaria (Plasmodium), fever Tapeworms (Cestodes), Nematodes (roundworms) Cholera (Shigella) transmission via dysentery, water borne Toilet seats, elevator buttons, door knobs, shopping carts...etc. Getting into and out of a public restroom safely Molecular mimicry: “eclipsed antigens” resemble host antigens hence do not elicit formation of host antibodies Major Histocompatibility Complex (MHC), identity of self, immune response Trypanosoma shed coats, change antigens Filariasis Elephantiasis (lymph nodes blocked by nematodes carried by mosquitoes) Botflies Dracunculus medinensis, caduceus symbol of medicine

Evolution of Virulence (benign parasites allow hosts to live) Host altered behavior Rabies virus — rabid animals bite, passes on virus to new host Lancet fluke Trematode Dicrocoelium dentriticum Cercaria —> Metacercariae encyst on ant’s brain Sheep ingest an ant and get infected Starlings, Pill bugs, and Acanthocephalans Ducks, Amphipods, and Acanthocephalans STDs ——> increased sexual activity? Ectoparasites (fleas, ticks, lice), endoparasites Social parasites (thievery, brood parasitism) Parasitoids: Ichneumonid wasps ————> Microparasites —> macroparasites —> parasitoids —> predator spectrum and many correlates thereof, such as relative sizes, rates of increase, number of parasites per host, virulence, stability, and ability to regulate lower trophic level

Coevolution Joint evolution of two (or more) taxa that have close ecological relationships but do not exchange genes, and in which reciprocal selective pressures operate to make the evolution of either taxon partially dependent on the evolution of the other

Enterobius Pinworms (Parasites on Primates)

Parallel phylogenies Brooks and Glen 1982 Enterobius species Primate hosts

Drosophila pachea and senita cactus. Danaid butterflies use polyuridine alkaloids as chemical precursors for synthesis of pheromones used in attracting mates. An arginine mimic, l-canavavine, present in many legumes, ruins protein structure in most insects. However, a bruchid beetle has evolved metabolic machinery that enable it to use plants containing canavanine.

Wild ginger, Asarum caudatum, in western Washington are polymorphic for growth rate, seed production, and palatabililty to a native slug, Ariolimax columbianus (Cates 1975). Where slugs are uncommon, plants allocate more energy to growth and seed production and less to production of antiherbivore chemicals. In habitats with lots of slugs, less palatable plants have a fitness advantage — even though they grow more slowly, they lose less photosynthetic tissue to slug herbivory.

Some of the Suggested Correlates of Plant Apparency _____________________________________________________________________________ Apparent Plants Unapparent Plants Common or conspicuous Rare or ephemeral Woody perennials Herbaceous annuals Long leaf life span Short-lived leaves Slow growing, competitive species Faster growing, often fugitive species Late stages of succession, climax Early stages of succession, second growth Bound to be found by herbivores Protected from herbivores by escape in (cannot escape in time and space) time and space (but still encountered by wide-ranging generalized herbivores) Produce more expensive quantitative Produce inexpensive qualitative chemical (broad-based) antiherbivore defenses defenses (poisons or toxins) to discourage (tough leaves, thorns, tannins) generalized herbivores Quantitative defenses constitute Qualitative defenses may be broken down effective ecological barriers to her- over evolutionary time by coevolution of bivores, although perhaps only a weak appropriate detoxification mechanisms in evolutionary barrier unless supple- herbivores (host plant-specific herbivore mented with qualitative defenses species result) Paul Feeny

Daniel Janzen

Pine squirrels (Tamiasciurus) and coniferous food trees (Smith 1970) Squirrels are very effective seed predators, stockpile cones Trees reduce squirrel effectiveness in many different ways: Cones difficult for squirrels to reach, open, or carry Putting fewer seeds in each cone (fake cones without any seeds) Increasing thickness of seed coats (seeds harder to harvest) Putting less energy into each seed (smaller seeds) Shedding seeds from cones early, before young squirrels forage Periodic cone crop failures decimate squirrel populations Individual trees out of synchrony would set fewer seeds and thus be selected against.

Community and Ecosystem Ecology Macrodescriptors = Aggregate Variables Trophic structure, food webs, connectance, rates of energy fixation and flow, ecological efficiency, species diversity, stability, relative importance curves, guild structure, successional stages Communities are not designed by natural selection for smooth and efficient function, but are composed of many antagonists (we need to attempt to understand them in terms of interactions between individual organisms)

Gross Productivity = rate at which plants capture solar energy Energy Flow and Ecological Energetics Gross Productivity = rate at which plants capture solar energy Gross annual production (GAP) Net productivity = gross productivity minus respiration losses Net annual production (NAP) Respiration in tropical rainforest 75-80% of GAP Respiration in temperate forests 50-75% of GAP In most other communities, it is 25-50 % of GAP Only about 5-10% of plant food is harvested by animals Remainder of NAP is consumed by decomposers Biogeochemical cycles

Biogeochemical Cycle for Calcium Hydrologic Cycle

Compartmentation Trophic Levels Autotrophs = producers Guild Structure Heterotrophs = consumers & decomposers Primary carnivores = secondary consumers Secondary carnivores = tertiary consumers Trophic continuum Horizontal versus vertical interactions Within and between trophic levels Guild Structure Foliage gleaning insectivorous birds Food Webs Subwebs, sink vs. source food webs Connectance [n (n-1)] / 2

Energy Flow and Ecological Energetics

Energy Flow and Ecological Energetics

Energy Flow and Ecological Energetics At equilibrium (dLi/dt = 0 for all i), energy flow in the system portrayed in the figure may thus be represented by a set of simple equations (with inputs on the left and rate of outflow to the right of the equal signs): l10 = l01 + l02 + l03 + l04 l10 = l21 + l01 + l41 l21 = l32 + l02 + l42 l32 = l03 + l43 l41 + l42 + l43 = l04

Systems Ecology

Food Web Paine (1966)

Food Web Bottom Line

Kirk Winemiller

Ecological Pyramids (numbers, biomass, and energy) Pyramid of energy Measures of standing crop versus rates of flow

Secondary Succession

Institute Woods in Princeton

Transition Matrix for Institute Woods in Princeton _________________________________________________________________________ Canopy Sapling Species (%) Species BTA GB SF BG SG WO OK HI TU RM BE Total __________________________________________________________________________ BT Aspen 3 5 9 6 6 - 2 4 2 60 3 104 Gray birch - - 47 12 8 2 8 0 3 17 3 837 Sassafras 3 1 10 3 6 3 10 12 - 37 15 68 Blackgum 1 1 3 20 9 1 7 6 10 25 17 80 Sweetgum - - 16 0 31 0 7 7 5 27 7 662 White Oak - - 6 7 4 10 7 3 14 32 17 71 Red Oak - - 2 11 7 6 8 8 8 33 17 266 Hickory - - 1 3 1 3 13 4 9 49 17 223 Tuliptree - - 2 4 4 - 11 7 9 29 34 81 Red Maple - - 13 10 9 2 8 19 3 13 23 489 Beech - - - 2 1 1 1 1 8 6 80 405 __________________________________________________________________________ BTA in next generation = 0.03 BTA + 0.03 SF + 0.01 BG . Grand Total = 3286 Henry Horn

Distributions of Trees Observed in 4 Forests and Predicted Climax __________________________________________________________________ __________________ Age (years) BTA GB SF BG SG WO OK HI TU RM BE __________________________________________________________________ __________________ 25 0 49 2 7 18 0 3 0 0 20 1 65 26 6 0 45 0 0 12 1 4 6 0 150 - - 0 1 5 0 22 0 0 70 2 350 - - - 6 - 3 - 0 14 1 76 Predicted climax 0 0 2 3 4 2 4 6 6 10 63 Data from the Institute Woods in Princeton (Horn 1975) Henry Horn

Diversity and Community Stability Diversity and Community Stability Saturation with Individuals and with Species Species Diversity = Biodiversity Species Density or Species Richness Relative Importance Equitability

Janzen’s Seedling Ring Hypothesis Tamiasciurus squirrel seed predation Community and Ecosystem Ecology Macrodescriptors = Aggregate Variables Compartment models, trophic structure, food webs, connectance, rates of energy fixation and flow, biogeochemical cycles, ecological energetics, ecological efficiency, trophic continuum, guild structure, ecological pyramids, successional stages, transition matrix, species diversity, stability, relative importance curves.

Diversity and Community Stability Diversity and Community Stability Saturation with Individuals and with Species Species Diversity = Biodiversity Species Density or Species Richness Relative Abundance/Importance Equitability

Species Diversity, Relative Abundance. Species. Site A. Site B. A. 10 Species Diversity, Relative Abundance Species Site A Site B A 10 91 B 10 1 C 10 1 D 10 1 E 10 1 F 10 1 G 10 1 H 10 1 I 10 1 J 10 1

Relative Abundance / Importance Ways two systems can differ in diversity Relative Abundance / Importance

All 10 Sites: Total Number of lizards: 20,990 Total numbers of lizards of 67 species collected on 10 desert study sites from 1966-2008 plotted against their ranks in relative abundance. The 12 most common species (blue) are named, along with 7 of the 54 less common to rare species (red). Samples exceed 30 for 48 of the 67 species.

Discriminant function analysis showing clear separation of rare species based on 10 ecological variables including body size, clutch size, niche breadths and overlaps for diet, microhabitat, and habitat.