CHAPTER III WORD-FORMATION (I) 1. General remarks of word-formation Percentage of new words coined by the different word-formation processes after WWII Some basic concepts of word-formation 2. Compounding Definition Classification of compounds

3. Derivation 4. Conversion Definition Prefixation Suffixation Types of conversion

1. GENERAL REMARKS Word-formation or word-building is an important means of vocabulary enlargement. The English language has increased its resources not only through the adoption of words from other languages, but also through the formation of new words with the material available in the language.

A Percentage of new words coined by word-formation processes (p.31) 27% COMPOUNDING Three major processes 17.5% DERIVATION 10.5%CONVERSION The eight minor processes 26.5%

Some basic concepts Word-formation rules: The rules of word –formation define the scope and methods whereby speakers of a language may create new words

A root is that part of a word-form that remains when all the inflectional and derivational affixes have been removed. (it conveys the main lexical meaning)

A stem is the part of the word-form which remains when all inflectional affixes have been removed.

A base is the form to which affixes of any kind can be added.

2. COMPOUNDING 1. Definition is a word-formation process in which words are formed by putting two or more words together.

2. The relative criteria of a compound word are as follows: Orthographic criterion Phonological criterion (`blackbird black`bird） Semantic criteria（greenhouse green house)

COMPOUNDING 3. Classification of compounding Compounds are here classified according to parts of speech of the compounds, i.e. as noun compounds, adjectives and verb compounds, which are then subdivided by the syntactic relation of the compounding elements.

Noun compounds Subject and verb Subject + deverbal noun (sunrise The sun rises.) Verb+ subject (crybaby The baby likes to cry.) Verbal noun in –ing +subject (dancing-girl The girl dances)

Verb and object Object+ deverbal noun in –ing (sight-seeing someone sees-) Object+agential noun in –er (or –or)(language teacher)

Verb+object (drawbridge 可开闭的吊桥 Someone draws the bridge.) Verbal noun in –ing+object (reading material someone reads the material.)

Verb and adverbial Verb noun in –ing+ adverbial (a prepositional phrase used as an adverbial) (swimming pool Someone swims in the pool.) Adverbial+ verbal noun in –ing daydreaming Someone dreams during the day.)

Adverbial+agential noun in –er (babysitter Someone sits with a baby.) Adverbial+ deverbal noun(homework Someone works at home.) Verb+adverbial(dancehall Someone dances in a hall.)

Subject and object Noun1+noun2 (windmill The wind powers the mill.) Noun1+noun2(toy factory The factory produces toys.) Noun1+noun2(cane sugar The cane produces the sugar.)

Noun1+noun2(table leg The table has legs) Noun1+noun2(security officer The officer looks after security.)

Restrictive relation (The first element restricts the meaning of the second raindrop a drop of rain) Appositive relation a pine tree the tree is a pine.)

Adjective compounds Subject and verb (suntanned Sun tanned the skin.) Verb and object (man-eating Someone eats men.)

Verb and adverbial Adverbial+ -ing participle (oceangoing Someone goes across oceans.) Adverbial+ -ed participle (heartfelt 衷心的 Someone fells it in the heart.)

Adverb/adj.+-ing participle (hardworking Someone works hard Adverb/adj.+ -ed participle (quick-frozen Something was frozen quickly.)

Noun and adjective The noun denoting respect (tax free free from tax) The noun denoting the thing with which the adjective is compared/denoting basis of comparison (ocean green as green as the ocean)

Coordinating relationship(bittersweet sweet but bitter) five subclassifications

Adjective compounds may also be formed from Phrasal verbs (made-up story) Adverbial phrases (They kept a round-the–clock watch on the house.)

From proverbs and idiomatic expressions (never-to-be-too-old-to-learn spirit) From an attributive clause (a jet-propelled plane)

Verb compounds Those formed by back-formation(baby-sit baby-sitter; house-keep house-keeper) Those formed by conversion(blue-pencil 改动; nickname）

There are two types of syntactic relations in verb compounds Object+ verb (housekeep to keep house) Adverbial+ verb (baby-sit to sit with a baby)

We have compound adverbs(out-doors, face-to-face), pronounces(something), prepositions (throughout) and conjunctions (however, therefore).

Words listed below are not classified (has-been, also-ran, lion’s share) To become familiar with some of the more productive types as indicated in this chapter might be useful for us. (Because of their brevity and vividness)

3. DERIVATION Definition: Derivation or affixation is a method of word-formation by which new words are created by adding affixes( prefix or suffix or both) or combining form to the base.

A combining form is a bound morpheme, such as auto- (fr A combining form is a bound morpheme, such as auto- (fr. Gk autos self), hydro (fr. Gk hydor water), or tele (fr. Tele far off), but which are now occurs only in derivatives.

Prefixation is the formation of new words by adding a prefix or combining form to the base. They do not generally alter the word-class of the base; fair unfair

2. Some do convert words to a different word-class be- adj. → v. Becalm, belittle; de- n. → v. Deform, debug(除错） en- n. → v. enslave(奴役), endanger (危及） un- n. → v. unleash, unearth;

3. Classification of prefixes 1. Negative prefixes(a-, dis-, in-, non-, un-)

a- on, in, to abed, afoot, asleep, aside from abridge of anew out amend emphasize arise, awake without, not amoral

2. Reversative or privative prefixes (de-, dis-, un-) 3. Pejorative prefixes (mis-, mal-, pseudo-) maladminister , ~dox

4. Prefixes of degree or size (arch-, super-, out-, sub-, over-, under-, hyper-, ultra-,mini-)

5. Prefixes of orientation and attitude (anti-, contra-, counter-, pro-, co-) 6. Locative prefixes (fore-, inter-, sub-, super-, trans-)

7. Prefixes of time and order (ex-, fore-, pre-, post-, re-) 8. Number prefixes (bi-/di-, multi-, poly-, tri-, uni-, mono-)

4.Brief description of some productive prefixes in current English. ANTI- (fr. Gk anti- against)(p.45) DE- (fr. De adv. & prep. Off, from) MINI- (means little, It combines freely with nouns)

NON- (means not , combines with nouns, adjectives and open-class adverbs) RE- (fr. L re-again) <re- word> SUPER- (fr. L super- above, beyond) UN- (means not or the converse of)

3. Suffixation is the formation of a new word by adding a suffix or a combining form to the base, and usually changing the word-class of the base.

Classification of suffixes Noun(-forming) suffixes noun→noun suffixes(-hood in brotherhood) adjective →noun suffixes(-ness in kindness) verb →noun suffixes(-er in writer, -ee in payee)

Verb(-forming) suffixes (-ify in simplify -ize in modernize -en in quicken))

Adjective(-forming) suffixes noun →adjective suffixes(-ful in useful, -less in careless) Other adjective(-forming) suffixes(-ed in pointed, -ic in atomic)

Adverb(-forming) suffixes (-ly in happily -ward/s in backward/s -wise in clockwise)

Brief description of some productive suffixes in current English. -ABLE Forming adjectives from transitive (specifically, from causative) verbs by indicating a passive sense(p.50)

(to break breakable, to move movable, To wash washable) Any new transitive verb can be made into an –able word (xerox xeroxable)

Forming from intransitive verbs, with an active meaning (perishable able to perish, variable able to vary)

Forming new words from verbs normally requiring an adverb or a preposition (such as laughable, livable)

-ER(OR) (with the meaning of one who performs an action/the agent may be animate or inanimate) -IN (this is a combining form of the adverb in. sit-in, work-in, drive-in)

-ISH (form adjectives from national names, as in Swedish; denote having the nature of, as in foolish; sense of some what, as in reddish)

-IZE (fr. Gk –ize) (one of the few verb-forming suffixes) -Y (an adjective-forming suffix added to nouns)

Differentiating suffixes There are some differentiating suffixes which convey subtle nuances of meaning. Historic historical Economic economical Comic comical Politic politicial

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