Social Cognition © 2014 Wadsworth Cengage Learning Chapter 5 Can you tell who was the silver medalist by only looking at their facial expressions?

Overview What is Social Cognition? What is Social Cognition? Attributions: Why Did That Happen? Attributions: Why Did That Happen? Heuristics: Mental Shortcuts Heuristics: Mental Shortcuts (So-Called) Errors and Biases (So-Called) Errors and Biases Are People Really Stupid? Are People Really Stupid?

Debate: Faith and Social Cognition Consider Carolyn Briggs, who became involved in, and then rejected, Christian fundamentalism Consider Carolyn Briggs, who became involved in, and then rejected, Christian fundamentalism How can someone believe so intensely and then reject those same beliefs? How can someone believe so intensely and then reject those same beliefs? How are our beliefs shaped by those around us? How are our beliefs shaped by those around us? Consider some cognitive biases and errors you have made Consider some cognitive biases and errors you have made

What is Social Cognition? The rise of cognitive psychology in the 1970’s and the development of attribution theory in the 60’s & 70’s lead to the scientific study of thinking. The rise of cognitive psychology in the 1970’s and the development of attribution theory in the 60’s & 70’s lead to the scientific study of thinking. Social psychologist study how people think about people and social relationships. Social psychologist study how people think about people and social relationships. What is unique about thinking about people as opposed to thinking about something else, like frogs or computers? Why is it important to study how people think about people?

Why People Think, and Why They Don’t Humans have a greater capacity for higher order thinking than other animals. But they are cognitive misers. Cognitive miser: reluctance to do much extra thinking Cognitive miser: reluctance to do much extra thinking During their free time, why do most people choose to think about a subject such as baseball, but not about a subject such as calculus? During their free time, why do most people choose to think about a subject such as baseball, but not about a subject such as calculus?

Automatic and Deliberate Thinking Stroop test – measures effortful control over responses, requiring participants to identify the color of a word ( which may name a different color). Stroop test – measures effortful control over responses, requiring participants to identify the color of a word ( which may name a different color). Illustrates automatic and deliberate control. Illustrates automatic and deliberate control. Stroop effect – occurs in the Stroop test, finding that people have difficulty overriding the automatic tendency to read the word rather than name the ink color. Stroop effect – occurs in the Stroop test, finding that people have difficulty overriding the automatic tendency to read the word rather than name the ink color.

Automatic and Deliberate Thinking How does the Stroop effect illustrate automatic versus deliberate thought? How does the Stroop effect illustrate automatic versus deliberate thought? How do we know if a thought is automatic? How do we know if a thought is automatic? Requires no awareness Requires no awareness Not guided by intention Not guided by intention Not subject to deliberate control Not subject to deliberate control Requires no effort Requires no effort Highly efficient Highly efficient Automatic thinking involves little effort because?

Knowledge Structures Are organized packets of information that are stored in memory. Are organized packets of information that are stored in memory. Schemas: information about a concept Schemas: information about a concept Scripts: schemas about certain events Scripts: schemas about certain events Priming: activating a concept in the mind Priming: activating a concept in the mind Framing: presentation as positive or negative Framing: presentation as positive or negative

Thought Suppression and Ironic Processes How do automatic and deliberate thought processes work together to suppress unpleasant thoughts? How do automatic and deliberate thought processes work together to suppress unpleasant thoughts? How difficult is it to control thoughts? How difficult is it to control thoughts?

Thought Suppression For the next 60 seconds, try NOT to think of a white bear For the next 60 seconds, try NOT to think of a white bear whenever the image of a white bear appears in your thoughts, raise your hand whenever the image of a white bear appears in your thoughts, raise your hand

Thought Suppression now raise your hand if you were thinking of a white bear before this exercise … now raise your hand if you were thinking of a white bear before this exercise … Why was it so hard to keep it out of your thoughts???? Why was it so hard to keep it out of your thoughts????

Attributions Attributions: inferences people make about events in their lives Attributions: inferences people make about events in their lives How do internal and external attributions shape behavior? How do stable and unstable attributions shape behavior? How do internal and external attributions shape behavior? How do stable and unstable attributions shape behavior? What is the purpose of self-serving bias? What is the purpose of self-serving bias?

Self-Fulfilling Prophecy

Actor/Observer Bias How do actors and observers make different attributions for behaviors? How do actors and observers make different attributions for behaviors? What factors might lead to a fundamental attribution error? What factors might lead to a fundamental attribution error? How does culture affect the fundamental attribution error? How does culture affect the fundamental attribution error? What evidence challenges the pervasiveness of fundamental attribution error? What other theories might explain actor/observer bias? What evidence challenges the pervasiveness of fundamental attribution error? What other theories might explain actor/observer bias?

Heuristics

Flawed or Clever Thinking How does the standard view that people’s thinking is flawed fall short? How does the standard view that people’s thinking is flawed fall short? In what ways do heuristics offer a better option than precise mathematical calculations? In what ways do heuristics offer a better option than precise mathematical calculations?

(So-Called) Errors and Biases How does the automatic mind help guard against information overload? How does the automatic mind help guard against information overload? What types of errors do people make when relying on automatic thought? What types of errors do people make when relying on automatic thought? Two types of information Two types of information Statistical information Statistical information Case history Case history When is it beneficial to pay closer attention to case histories? When is it not? When is it beneficial to pay closer attention to case histories? When is it not?

Confirmation bias: tendency to notice and search for information that confirms one’s beliefs and ignore information that disconfirms it Confirmation bias: tendency to notice and search for information that confirms one’s beliefs and ignore information that disconfirms it How is this helpful for human experience? How is this helpful for human experience? Illusory correlation: tendency to overestimate link between variables that are related only slightly or not at all Illusory correlation: tendency to overestimate link between variables that are related only slightly or not at all How does the media contribute to illusory correlations? How does the media contribute to illusory correlations? (So-Called) Errors and Biases (cont’d.)

Base rate fallacy: ignore base rate information and be influenced by distinctive features of the case Base rate fallacy: ignore base rate information and be influenced by distinctive features of the case Hot hand: luck will continue Hot hand: luck will continue Gambler’s fallacy: a chance event is affected by previous events and will “even out” Gambler’s fallacy: a chance event is affected by previous events and will “even out” How do the hot hand and gambler’s fallacies tie into the representative heuristic? How do the hot hand and gambler’s fallacies tie into the representative heuristic?

(So-Called) Errors and Biases (cont’d.) False consensus effect: False consensus effect: Overestimate the number of people who share one’s opinions Overestimate the number of people who share one’s opinions How does the false consensus effect relate to the availability heuristic? How does it relate to the anchoring & adjustment heuristic? How does the false consensus effect relate to the availability heuristic? How does it relate to the anchoring & adjustment heuristic?

(So-Called) Errors and Biases (cont’d.) False uniqueness effect False uniqueness effect Underestimate the number of people who share one’s prized characteristics or abilities Underestimate the number of people who share one’s prized characteristics or abilities What effect does this bias have on self-esteem? What effect does this bias have on self-esteem?

(So-Called) Errors and Biases (cont’d.) The theory perseverance effect The theory perseverance effect Once a conclusion is drawn, it is only changed by overwhelming evidence Once a conclusion is drawn, it is only changed by overwhelming evidence How does this tie in with the belief that humans are meant to argue? How does this tie in with the belief that humans are meant to argue? Polarization Polarization Shifting towards more extreme positions Shifting towards more extreme positions Why would people polarize after careful thought and consideration of a topic? Why would people polarize after careful thought and consideration of a topic?

(So-Called) Errors and Biases (cont’d.) Statistical regression Statistical regression Statistical tendency for extremes to be followed by less extremes Statistical tendency for extremes to be followed by less extremes How does statistical regression explain the Sports Illustrated jinx? How does statistical regression explain the Sports Illustrated jinx? Illusion of control Illusion of control A false belief that one can influence events A false belief that one can influence events How can the illusion of control be dangerous for gamblers? How can the illusion of control be dangerous for gamblers?

Counterfactual Thinking Imagining alternatives to past or present factual events or circumstances Imagining alternatives to past or present factual events or circumstances How do some students apply first instinct fallacy when taking tests? How do some students apply first instinct fallacy when taking tests? How can upward counterfactuals help people make things better for the future? How can upward counterfactuals help people make things better for the future? How can downward counterfactuals bring comfort after misfortune? How can downward counterfactuals bring comfort after misfortune?

Table 5-2 p182

Are People Really Stupid? How do “errors” and “biases” make sense if humans are argumentative creatures? How do “errors” and “biases” make sense if humans are argumentative creatures? How serious are the “errors” that people make? How serious are the “errors” that people make? In what ways are they correct decisions? In what ways are they correct decisions? In what ways are they corrected by society or by cancelling each other out? In what ways are they corrected by society or by cancelling each other out? How can people reduce cognitive errors? How can people reduce cognitive errors? What can we do to encourage people to use deliberate instead of automatic thinking? What can we do to encourage people to use deliberate instead of automatic thinking?

What Makes Us Human? How does language open up opportunities for exploration of linkages of meaning? How does language open up opportunities for exploration of linkages of meaning? In what ways is the conscious mind uniquely human? In what ways is the conscious mind uniquely human? What types of thinking are uniquely human? What types of thinking are uniquely human? What types of errors and biases are uniquely human? What types of errors and biases are uniquely human?

Discussion: Errors and Biases What types of errors and biases do you think are more beneficial for humans? In what ways? What types of errors and biases do you think are more beneficial for humans? In what ways? Do you believe that humans are designed to argue and persuade? How does this theory challenge the traditional view of thinking about errors and biases? Do you believe that humans are designed to argue and persuade? How does this theory challenge the traditional view of thinking about errors and biases?

Conclusion Social cognition examines how people think about other people and about relationships Social cognition examines how people think about other people and about relationships Much thinking is done by the automatic mind, as opposed to deliberately thinking through things Much thinking is done by the automatic mind, as opposed to deliberately thinking through things What were traditionally thought of as errors in thinking may have advantages for human life What were traditionally thought of as errors in thinking may have advantages for human life