© T. M. Whitmore TODAY Early Spanish settlement patterns Urban Morphology in Spanish America Social aspects of Spanish colonial settlement Portuguese settlement of Brazil The sugar plantation economies of Brazil & the Caribbean

© T. M. Whitmore LAST TIME- Questions? Iberian history & the Conquest of Latin America Early Spanish conquest and colonization Early Spanish colonial labor institutions

© T. M. Whitmore Spanish Colonial Settlement I Initial Spanish occupancy pattern  Tie main ports to Spanish motherland Economy focused on extraction to Spain not local connections => Dual system  Euro cities with close ties to Spain  Indian areas in the periphery -- carries down to today  This early pattern still visible in the “dual economy” of Latin America

© T. M. Whitmore Spanish Colonial Settlement II Caribbean settlements  Fortified ports in Strategic locations  Virtual extinction of Amerindians in Caribbean  Experiments with Mediterranean animals & crops Caribbean settlements after 1519  Increasingly unimportant  Except for a few strategic locations for the shipments back to Spain  Crop & animal experiments  Imprint still Imprint

© T. M. Whitmore Cartagena Panama Havana Santo Domingo San Juan

Havana Treasure Convoys (flotas)

© T. M. Whitmore Urban types & functions I Mexico & Central America  Administrative cities:  Mexico City, Antigua  Commercial and transport cities  Veracruz, Acapulco, Panama City  Mining Centers  Zacatecas, Guanajuato  Agricultural Centers  Guadalajara, Puebla, Querétaro  “Industrial” Centers  Puebla, Tlaxcala, Oaxaca

© T. M. Whitmore Urban types & functions II Caribbean  Administrative cities:  Havana, Santo Domingo, San Juan  Commercial and transport cities  Havana

© T. M. Whitmore Urban types & functions III South America  Administrative cities:  Lima, Bogotá, Quito  Commercial and transport cities  Callao, Cartagena  Mining Centers  Potosí  Agricultural Centers  Arequipa, Santiago  “Industrial” Centers  Quito, Cuenca

© T. M. Whitmore Zacatecas San Luis Potosí Querètaro Guadalara Guanajuato Puebla Tlaxcala Mexico City Oaxaca Veracruz Acapulco

© T. M. Whitmore Antigua Panama

© T. M. Whitmore Cartagena Panama Havana Santo Domingo San Juan

Bogotá Cartagena Quito Cuenca Lima Callao ArequipaPotosí

© T. M. Whitmore Urban Morphology in Spanish America: 2 types “Freeform” mostly mining towns  E.g., Guanajuanto or TaxcoTaxco Grid system cities — virtually ALL the rest Grid system cities  Patterned on the new towns settled in Spain during the re-conquest  Central square (plaza, plaza de armas, zócalo) surrounded by:  Church  Seat of local government  High-class residences and shops

Taxco, Mexico

Central Mexico City

Cathedral & Zócalo, Mexico City

Cusco, Peru Plaza de Armas

Plaza in Querétaro, Mexico

Antigua, Guatemala

© T. M. Whitmore Spanish Colonial Settlement World of the Spanish (and their servants etc.)  Urban society as much as possible  Closer to center = higher prestige  Spaniards settled where wealth was to be had African World in Spanish America  Plantation slaves  As servants and craftspeople in Spanish cities

© T. M. Whitmore The Indian world, the so called “República de los Indios” (for high density Amerindian societies in Mexico, Guatemala, Andes)  Rural  Townships Townships  Follow old encomienda and parish boundaries Spanish resettlement (1550s & 1600 in Mexico, 1570s in Peru)  Called congregación or reducción Role of missions in less settled areasmissions  Missions of mendicant friars (Dominicans, Franciscans, Jesuits, etc.) Spanish Colonial Settlement II

San Xavior de Bac Jesuit Mission near Tucson, AZ

San Xavior de Bac Jesuit Mission near Tucson, AZ

© T. M. Whitmore Spanish American Social Hierarchies Social distinctions among Spaniards – mostly an urban phenomena Racial distinctions – races separate to a degree Over time spatial hierarchy became:  Mulattos and mestizos in smaller more remote Spanish cities or haciendas;  Creoles and Spaniards in larger cities;  Indians and Africans either urban servants or in rural areas

© T. M. Whitmore Relative Populations mid 1500s mid 1600s Spanish250,000 (0.5%) 400,000 (8%) African 100, ,00 Indian 50 million 5 million By 1810 (near end of colonial period):  Spanish descent = 20%  Indian descent = 45%  Mestizo = 33%  African = 4%

© T. M. Whitmore Portuguese Brazilian Settlement Initial Settlement Patterns  State-sized settlements to private entrepreneurs  to extract dye wood “palo brazil”  This initial “capitalistic-like” set up failed by 1540 and all lands re- transferred to the crown

© T. M. Whitmore Initial Settlement Tordesillas Treaty Line 1494

© T. M. Whitmore Plantation Sugar in Brazil Turkish closure of Middle Eastern sugar & decrease in honey production in Europe => huge profits to be had Plantation sugar system in Brazil ~ 1540s – 1700s (dominates world’s sugar for ~ 200 yrs)  Advanced agro-technology  Excellent agro-ecology  Good access to European markets  Initially Amerindian labor – later African slaves

© T. M. Whitmore Brazilian Fazendas laborers 30 km 2 (2-3 miles on a side) Cane fields pasture for oxen plots for slave subsistence woodlands for fuel mill complex

© T. M. Whitmore Impacts of Brazilian fazenda settlement Coastal few links inland Cities of less import initially Collapse of local Indigenous pops Huge import of African slaves => helped set racial composition of NE Brazil until today Ecological impact: deforestation, soil exhaustion

© T. M. Whitmore Sugar & Slaves 1500s – 1700s

© T. M. Whitmore Caribbean Caribbean adoption of Brazilian plantation system Northern European Colonies recreated Brazilian system after 1640 Similar agro-ecological advantages Better slave security Easier transport to Europe Became the most valuable colonies for each state! Impacts  Soil depletion  Vast increase in Afro-origin population

© T. M. Whitmore Characteristics of plantation ag Old world plants and techniques Requires huge land holdings – discourages small holders Cheap labor needed Absentee owners or few local owners Uses best land Settlement is at plantation not cities Cultural/spatial/class dualism Economy is wholly export and dependent on world market “mining” of resources (soils and timber) => impoverished local areas

© T. M. Whitmore Sugar & Slaves in the Caribbean

© T. M. Whitmore African slavery in Brazil and Caribbean Characteristics Chronology Geography  Brazil Brazil  Spanish America  Caribbean Caribbean Totals African origins Decline of slavery after 1800 Consequences of plantation/slave agriculture Consequences of plantation/slave agriculture

© T. M. Whitmore Sugar & Slaves 1500s – 1700s ~ 4.3 million Africans transported as slaves To Brazil

© T. M. Whitmore Sugar & Slaves in the Caribbean ~ 1.8 m slaves to Spanish colonies ~ 1.7 m slaves to French colonies ~ 2.9 m slaves to English colonies

© T. M. Whitmore SLAVERY IN THE AMERICAS BRAZIL~ 4.3 million SPANISH AMERICA 50% to Cuba (900 k) 20% to Mexico (360 k) 10% to Venezuela (180 k) 20% Columbia, Panama, Ecuador ~ 1.8 million FRENCH AMERICA Mostly to Martinique & Haiti ~ 1.7 million ENGLISH AMERICA 40% to Jamaica (1.2 m) 22% to North America (640 k) 20% to Barbados (580 k) 13% other Caribbean (377 k) ~ 2.9 million Totals are approximate and probably are underestimates. (nearly 5 m to small Caribbean islands) ~ 10.7 million

© T. M. Whitmore SLAVERY IN THE AMERICAS  ~ 1% of all slaves transported  ~ 40% of slaves in this period to Brazil; 60% to the Spanish colonies  early period slave transport ~ 125k  ~ 14% of all slaves transported  totals transported about 1.3m  ~ 40% to Brazil, 20% to Spanish colonies, 38% to N European Caribbean

© T. M. Whitmore SLAVERY IN THE AMERICAS II 1700 – 1810 (peak of slave trade)  ~ 64% of all slaves transported  totals ~ 6 million  North America ~ 6%, British Caribbean ~ 23%, Spanish America ~ 9%, French Caribbean ~ 22%, Brazil ~ 31%, Dutch and Danish Caribbean the rest 1810 – 1870  ~ 20% of all slaves transported  totals ~ 1.9m  Brazil 60%, French Caribbean ~ 5%, Spanish America ~ 32%

© T. M. Whitmore Consequences of the sugar/slave system Altered racial makeup Influenced settlement patterns in Brazil and Caribbean Influenced labor and social relationships Influenced land tenure systems: latifundia vs “mini-fundia” Degraded environment and lost resources