Qualitative Research Week 2 Day 2 (Sept) DIE 4564 Research Methods Introduction to Health Research Methods by Jacobsen Chp 14

Qualitative Study Methods A qualitative study looks for the themes and meanings that emerge from the observation and evaluation of a situation or context. Qualitative researchers often have intense contact with a selected group of informants.

Topics Appropriate for Qualitative Field Research Topics that defy simply quantification Attitudes and behaviors best understood in their natural setting Social processes over time

Special Considerations in Qualitative Field Research Roles of the Observer  Participant, Researcher, Observer  Reactivity – the problem of research subjects reacting to being studied, thus altering their behavior from what it would have normally been.  Objectivity of the Researcher How many people change what they are eating when they are recording it for the dietitian?

Ethics in Qualitative Field Research Conducting field research responsibly involves confronting several ethical issues that arise from the researcher’s direct contact with subjects. More on ethics later…

Some Qualitative Field Research Approaches (Paradigms) Phenomenology Seeks to understand how participants understand, interpret, and find meaning in their own unique life experiences  Linked to the existentialist movement  Focus on the world as given in experience, and to describe it with unprecedented care, rigor, subtlety, and completeness.

Some Qualitative Field Research Approaches (Paradigms) Grounded Theory – an inductive approach to the study of social life that attempts to generate a theory from the constant comparing of unfolding observations; a systematic methodology involving the discovery of theory through the analysis of data.  Guidelines:  Think conservatively  Obtain multiple viewpoints  Maintain an attitude of skepticism  Follow the research procedures

Some Qualitative Field Research Approaches (Paradigms) Ethnography A method of study on social life that focuses on detailed and accurate descriptions rather than explanations. Focus is on how the member of the cultural group see their world. Develops an insider’s view (“emic perspective”) rather than an outsider’s view (“etic perspective”)

Conducting Qualitative Field Research Preparing for the Field  Be familiar with relevant research  Discuss your plans with others in the area  Identify and meet informants (when appropriate)  First impressions are important  Establish rapport (an open and trusting relationship)  Ethical considerations The Qualities of Good Qualitative Researches

Conducting Qualitative Field Research Establishing Rapport  Rapport – an open and trusting relationship, especially important in qualitative research, between researchers and the people they’re observing.

Establishing Rapport

Conducting Qualitative Field Research Qualitative Interview – contrasted with survey interviewing, the qualitative interview is based on a set of topics to be discussed in depth rather than based on the use of standardized questions.  In-depth or semi-structured interview  Focus group

Examples of Techniques In-depth and semi-structured interviews of individuals use open-ended questions to explore viewpoints. The interviewer is allowed to probe for more details about any response in order to gain fuller understanding of the participant’s experiences and perspectives. Interviews are often supplemented by other methods, such as participant diaries or journals.

Examples of Techniques Focus groups of about 4 to 12 people are moderated discussions led by a facilitator from the research team. The facilitator encourages participants to interact with one another and to clarify their individual and shared perspectives. Focus groups are probably the most widely used of qualitative research technique in dietetics.

Stages to using Interviewing as a Structured Research Process 1. Thematizing 2. Designing 3. Interviewing 4. Transcribing 5. Analyzing 6. Verifying 7. Reporting

Examples of Analytic Techniques The analysis of qualitative data usually involves coding and classifying observations and deriving major and minor themes from the groups of observations. Reports of the findings of qualitative studies often incorporate quotations that express participants’ perspectives and experiences in their own words.

Strengths and Weaknesses of Qualitative Field Research In-depth or semi-structured interviews Advantages  Effective for studying subtle nuances in attitudes and behaviors and social processes over time  Flexibility  Inexpensive Disadvantages  Limited appropriate statistical analyses

Strengths and Weaknesses of Qualitative Field Research Focus Groups – Advantages: real-life data, flexible, high degree of face validity, fast, inexpensive Disadvantages: not representative, little interviewer control, difficult analysis, interviewer/moderator skills, difficult logistically, limited appropriate statistical analyses

Strengths and Weaknesses of Qualitative Field Research Validity  Greater validity than survey and experimental measurements Reliability  Potential problems with reliability

Consensus Methods The goal of some studies is to identify areas of consensus and areas of contention among individuals who are experts on a particular topic and/or a particular community or organization.

Nominal Group Process The Nominal Group Process is a structured group method of soliciting and consolidating opinions to reach consensus  Each participant expresses opinion in writing  Group participates in round-robin feedback session to record all members ideas without debate  Ideas are discussed and clarified  Ideas are voted on using established criteria and weighting of vote by priority.  Votes tallied and highest ranking are focus of next round of discussion until consensus reached.

Delphi Method The Delphi method is a structured decision-making and forecasting process. Similar to Nominal Group Process only by mail Completing individual questionnaires A facilitator summarizing and sharing the responses Panelists reconsidering their perspectives after reflecting on the opinions expressed by others The goal is for each iteration to move the panel of experts closer to agreement.

Qualitative Research- Tools and Techniques DIE 4564 Research Methods

Comparison of the Different Survey Methods  Self-Administered Questionnaires  Cheaper and faster than face-to-face interviews  National is the same cost as local mailings  Requires small staff  More willingness to answer controversial items  Interview Surveys  Fewer incomplete questionnaires  More effective for complicated questionnaires  Face-to-face is more intimate  Telephone Surveys  Cheaper and more time efficient  Online Surveys  Available software and websites

Examples of Methods for Collecting Data

Guidelines for Asking Questions Questionnaire - a document containing questions and other types of items designed to solicit information appropriate for analysis.  Open-Ended Questions – questions for which the respondent is asked to provide his/her own answers.  Closed-Ended Questions – survey questions in which the respondent is asked to select an answer from a list provided by the researcher.

Guidelines for Asking Questions Select appropriate question forms. Make items clear. Avoid double-barreled questions. Respondents must be competent to answer. Respondents must be willing to answer. Questions should be relevant. Short items are best Avoid negative items. Avoid biased items and terms.

Guidelines for Asking Questions Bias – that quality of measurement device that tends to result in a misrepresentation of what is being measured in a particular direction. Whenever we ask people for information, they may answer through the filter of social desirability (what will make them look good). How you ask a question may influence this.

Questionnaire Construction General Questionnaire Format  Uncluttered  One question per line  Consistent format

Questionnaire Construction Formats for Respondents

Questionnaire Construction Contingency Question – a survey question intended for only some respondents, determined by their responses to some other question.

Questionnaire Construction Contingency Question – a survey question intended for only some respondents, determined by their responses to some other question.

Questionnaire Construction Matrix Questions

Questionnaire Construction Ordering Items in a Questionnaire  Appearance  Open-Ended or Closed-Ended First?

Questionnaire Construction Questionnaire Instructions  Introductory comments and clear instructions Pre-testing the Questionnaire

Questionnaire Construction A Composite Illustration

Self-Administered Questionnaires Questionnaires in which respondents are asked to complete the questionnaire by themselves Mail Distribution and Return  Why do people not return questionnaires? Monitoring Returns Follow-Up Mailings

Self-Administered Questionnaires Response Rate – the number of people participating in a survey divided by the number selected in the sample.  Ideal = higher than 70% Other kinds of rates:  Cooperation rates  Refusal rates  Contact rates

Interview Surveys Interview – a data-collection encounter in which one person (interviewer) asks questions of another (respondent). The Role of the Survey Interviewer

Interview Surveys Guidelines for Survey Interviewing  Appearance and demeanor  Familiarity with the questionnaire  Following question wording exactly  Recording responses exactly  Probing for responses  Probe – a technique employed in interviewing to solicit a more complete answer to a question.

Interview Surveys Coordinate and Control  Training  General guidelines  How to handle difficult situations  Practice interviews

Telephone Surveys Advantages  95.5% of households have a telephone  Time and money Disadvantages  Unlisted phone numbers  Cell phones

Telephone Surveys Random-Digit Dialing (RDD) – a sampling technique in which random numbers are selected from within the range of numbers assigned to active telephones.

Telephone Surveys Computer-Assisted Telephone Interviewing (CATI) – a data-collection technique in which a telephone-survey questionnaire is stored in a computer, permitting the interviewer to read the questions from the monitor and enter the answers on the computer keyboard

Online Surveys DO use consistent wording. DO use simple language. DON’T force excessive scrolling. DO offer to share select result with respondents. DO plan time and day of initial mailing. DO be aware of technical limitations. DO test incentives, rewards, and prizes. DO limit studies to less than 15 minutes.

Recruiting Methods Once a data collection method has been selected, the next step is to decide on an effective method for recruiting members of the sample population to be participants in the study. The best method for initiating contact with potential participants is often related to the intended data collection method.

Recruiting Methods Participation rates will likely be higher if: Recruits understand the importance and value of the research project Researchers provide multiple invitations and opportunities to participate, and make participation as easy as possible Incentives (such as small gifts) are offered

Data Recording Methods A decision must also be made about how responses will be recorded and when they will be entered into a computer database. There are two basic options: Record the responses on paper and to enter them into a computer database later Have interviewers or participants enter responses directly into a database

Methods for Collecting and Recording Survey Data

Training Interviewers The interview process should be the same for all participants in a study, whether they are being interviewed in-person or by telephone interview. Uniformity is easiest to accomplish when all interviewers attend training sessions where they have an opportunity to practice their interview skills.

Strengths and Weaknesses of Survey Research  Strengths  Useful in describing large populations  Surveys are flexible  Standardized questions

Strengths and Weaknesses of Survey Research  Weaknesses  Seldom deal with context of social life  Inflexible  Artificial  Weak on validity

Secondary Analysis Secondary Analysis – a form of research in which the data collected and processed by one researcher are reanalyzed by another.  General Social Survey Secondary analysis provides social researchers with an important option for “collecting” data cheaply and easily but at a potential cost in validity.

Ethics and Survey Research Surveys often ask for private information, and researchers must keep such information confidential. Because asking questions can cause psychological discomfort or harm to respondents, the researcher should minimize this risk.