Chapter 3 Plate Tectonics

Plate Tectonics In 1855, Antonio Snider published a sketch showing how the two continents could fit together, jigsaw-puzzle fashion In 1912, Alfred Wegener published the concept of continental drift Continental drift is just one aspect of a broader theory known as plate tectonics, which has evolved over the last several decades Tectonics is the study of large-scale movement and deformation of the earth’s outer layers Plate tectonics relates such deformation to the existence and movement of rigid “plates” over a weak or partly molten layer in the earth’s upper mantle

Figure 3.6

Continental Drift and Plate Tectonics Jigsaw-puzzle fit of continents observed a few centuries ago Mechanism to describe how continental masses moved was not easily visualized for decades Later half of 20th century the concept of continental drift was incorporated into a broader concept of Plate Tectonics Mechanisms and processes of continent scale movement detailed Evidence based on physics, chemistry, mathematics, and geology used to explain how rigid plates move relative to each other

Figure 3.1

Figures 3.2 a and b

Rock Response to Plate Tectonics Stress –force applied on a rock Compressive stress – squeeze or compress an object Tensile stress – pull or stretch an object Shearing stress – different parts of an object move in different directions or at different rates Strain – results from stress; is the change in shape or size of an object because of the stress it experienced

Strain Temporary or permanent Elastic deformation – temporary strain, object recovers original size and shape once the stress is removed Elastic limit – strain that becomes permanent in an object once limit of recoverable strain has been exceeded Plastic deformation occurs in materials once elastic limit has been exceeded Brittle deformation occurs at the limit of strength of the material, a rupture or a break occurs

Figure 3.3

Lithosphere and Asthenosphere Earth’s crust and upper most mantle are solid and compose the lithosphere Stresses cause brittle and elastic deformation Beneath the lithosphere is a plastic layer called the asthenosphere Lithospheric plates can move over this plastic layer; plate tectonics plausible Boundaries of the plates are active with earthquake and some with volcanic activity

Figure 3.4

Evidence for Plate Tectonics Earthquakes and volcanoes Sea Floor topography Trenches Ridges Paleomagnetism Magnetic patterns imprinted on oceanic crust Curie temperature Magnetic reversals Magnetic polar wandering curves Sea Floor Spreading Age of the sea floor Other evidence Fit of continents, GPS data, and more …

Figure 3.5

Figure 3.7

Figures 3.8 a and b

Figure 3.9

Figure 3.10

Other Evidence for Plate Tectonics Distribution of rocks representing ancient deserts, sea shores, tropical areas, glaciated areas, swamps, and equatorial regions Location of fossils that were originally restricted in their distribution but now separated by oceans and on separate continents Fit of continents reveal super continent of Pangaea Recognition of plate boundaries

Figure 3.13

Figure 3.14

Figure 3.6

Figures 3.15 a, b, and c

Plate Boundaries Divergent Plate Boundary Lithospheric plates move apart; form oceanic ridges Upwelling of asthenosphere injects magma forming oceanic ridges and new oceanic crust Forces plates apart Sea floor spreading occurs Transform Boundaries – short segments of a ridge Transform faults offset ridge San Andreas Fault – transform fault under continental crust

Figures 3.16 a and b

Plate Boundaries Convergent Plate Boundaries Lithospheric plates move toward each other Higher density oceanic crust overridden by low density continental crust Subduction zone forms and produces a trench Subduction of older oceanic crust balances the spreading seafloor equation Subduction zones are active geologic places Volcanism Earthquakes Island arc formation

Figures 3.18 a, b, and c

Figure 3.19

Tectonics Convection cells operate in mantle Upwelling of heat and magma occurs at divergent plate boundaries New oceanic crust formed Oceanic crust pushed away from spreading centers Hot spots located independent of plate boundaries High heat flow radiate from them Volcanic activity associated with them Hawaiian Islands Yellowstone

Figure 3.20

Figure 3.21

Figure 3.22

Figure 3.23