Heather Barry Kappes Department of Management, London School of Economics and Political Science Symposium on motivational psychology in educational settings 20 July, 2013 How imagining a positive future shapes motivation and behaviour

“…desirable outcomes such as health, wealth, and happiness can be attracted simply by changing one’s thoughts and feelings”

: A testimonial I began visualizing and seeing myself hanging up my diploma. Everyday I told myself “I have my high School diploma”… The day of my test I didn't really understand the mathematics… I passed! …I see this as a doorway to success and life is easy.

Fantasies Free thoughts and mental images (Oettingen & Wadden 1991) Akin to mental simulations (Taylor, Pham, Rivkin, & Armor 1998) or daydreams (Klinger 1971, 1990) Distinct from beliefs, attitudes, and values (Oettingen & Mayer 2002)

Positive fantasies Positively experienced images of future desired events Depict the smooth attainment and unrestricted enjoyment of the desired future

Fantasies and academic achievement in vocational students

September January Measured baseline academic competence Measured fantasies, other predictors Recorded GPA Measured attendance Ages 17 to 62 (M = 35 years, SD = 11.90) 44% African or African American 18% Hispanic or Latina 21% Caucasian or European American 5% Asian or Asian American 12% other minority or did not indicate

Measure fantasies

Results Positivity of fantasies Final GPA β = -.19, p =.07 β =.25, p =.04 (Kappes, Oettingen, & Mayer, 2011, EJSP, Study 2) β = -.32, p =.001 β = -.27, p =.02 Days absent 95% CI for indirect effect -.24 to.01 Adjusting for baseline academic competence, age, expectations of success, self-reported self-discipline

Replicates previous research finding that positive fantasies predict low achievement (Oettingen & Mayer 2002; Oettingen & Wadden 1991) Extends it to disadvantaged sample Suggests low effort as a mechanism

Energization Energy is mobilized by physiological factors such as exercise, as well as by the anticipated exertion of effort (e.g., Wright, Brehm & Bushman 1989) Positive fantasies allow people to mentally experience the desired future in the present; they conceal the need to invest effort Positive fantasies should yield low energization

Manipulate fantasies about upcoming week Measure feelings of energization Measure accomplishment in previous week 1 week

Positive fantasy Imagine that everything you do in the next week will go really well. Please generate and write down some positive thoughts and daydreams about your experiences in this coming week.

Neutral fantasy Please generate and write down some thoughts and daydreams about your experiences in this coming week.

t(34) = 4.06, p <.001,  2 =.33χ 2 (1) = 11.64, p <.01,  =.57

DV: Energization How much are you presently feeling “excited” “enthusiastic” “active” (α =.76)

Energization t(38) = 2.13, p =.04,  2 =.11 (Kappes & Oettingen, 2011, JESP, Study 3)

DV: Accomplishment One week later… “How well did the past week go for you?” “How disappointed do you feel about the way that this past week went for you?” (reversed) “How close was the way the week went to the way you had imagined it would go?” “How often did you feel in control?” “How often did you feel ‘on top of it’?” “I felt very pressed for time” (reversed) “I managed time easily” (α =.83)

Accomplishment t(38) = 2.00, p =.05,  2 =.10 (Kappes & Oettingen, 2011, JESP, Study 3)

Mediation Week accomplishment β = -.17, p =.29 β = -.41, p =.01β =.41, p =.01 β = -.31, p =.05 Energization Adjusting for irritation after the manipulation Positive fantasy condition 95% CI for indirect effect.03 to.65

Positive fantasies about an idealized future resulted in low energization One mechanism by which positive fantasies produce poor achievement …Always?

Sometimes positive mental images enhance attainment, (e.g., Gregory, Cialdini, & Carpenter 1982) These are tasks that demand relatively few resources Amount of resources demanded may moderate effect of positive fantasies

Sometimes positive mental images enhance attainment (e.g., Gregory, Cialdini, & Carpenter 1982) These are tasks that demand relatively few resources Amount of resources demanded may moderate effect of positive fantasies

Manipulate amount of money demanded to help resolve crisis Manipulate amount of money demanded to help resolve crisis Measure relevant behavior: decision to help Measure relevant behavior: decision to help Manipulate fantasies about the resolution of a crisis: positive fantasies versus factual description Manipulate fantasies about the resolution of a crisis: positive fantasies versus factual description

Positive fantasies about crisis being resolved Factual descriptions of crisis being resolved

Resources demanded $1 / $25 DV: Agreement to donate versus not

Agreement to donate χ 2 (1) = 8.30, p =.004 Kappes, Sharma, & Oettingen, 2013, JCP, Study 1

Amount of resources demanded moderated effect of positive fantasies Positive fantasies –decreased relevant behavior that demanded relatively many resources; –(sometimes) increased relevant behavior that demanded few resources

Reconciling with other research Positive illusions benefit mental health (Taylor & Brown 1988) –Different form of positive thinking Interventions use positive visualizations to boost happiness (Sheldon & Lyubomirsky 2006) –Examine short-term outcome Athletes prescribed positive imagery to increase confidence (Moritz, Hall, Martin, & Vadocz 1996) –Actually rather “negative” imagery

Implications and suggestions Positive imagery as a starting point; distinction between what’s helpful for goal setting and what’s helpful for goal striving Incorporate obstacles, negative aspects into idealized descriptions of possible futures

Thank you My collaborator on these projects: Gabriele Oettingen New York University For copies of any of these papers, please contact