Main “loopholes” today to get around contribution limits in campaigns * Independent expenditure groups (Supreme Court has generally supported these because aren’t made directly to a candidate so not “corrupting” in same way as a direct contribution) groups: independent groups not subject to contribution restrictions, so long as don’t explicitly endorse – Swift Boat Vets, Moveon.org –donations reported to FEC but amount = unlimited - 501s: independent groups that can also get unlimited donations, don’t even have to report donations to FEC so long as spend < 50 percent of their funds on political activities - Super PACS: can accept unlimited donations, can endorse,so long as “just express their views” and don’t give their money to a candidate – in 2012 super PACs arose to support all pres. candidates

Electoral College Each state’s votes in the electoral college equal the number of its Reps in the U.S. House plus Senators in the U.S. Senate Versus National Vote

How people vote in presidential elections – most based on party ID Prospective voting – look ahead based on each candidate’s promises Retrospective voting – vote based on past performance of incumbent administration Policy voting versus focusing on personal characteristics (honesty, competence, “regular guy”) Gender gap: women vote more D than men

2012 election – why did Obama win (Hayward)? Microtargeting – zero in on likely voters for your side, and hit them with particular messages designed to get them out to vote Expansion of coalition to bring in low turnout voters, especially young and Hispanic voters, especially in battleground states

POLITICAL PARTIES – Pros and Cons

Positive functions of Parties Organize and contest elections Organize and run government Help voters decide (“Responsible Party Government – present distinct alternatives, can be held accountable for distinct policies)

Negative functions of Parties Confuse responsibility for public policy Deliberately sabotage attempts to govern by the other party Make voters more cynical (by negative advertising, attacks on politicians from other party, etc.)

FIVE PARTY ERAS 1. First Party System – (Jeffersonian) 2. Jacksonians v. Whigs Two Republican Eras (Civil War and Reconstruction, Industrial Republican )

4. New Deal Coalition (Class based coalition)- Urban dwellers Labor unions Catholics, Jews Poor Southerners African Americans

Present: Southern Realignment and Divided Party Government Some people believe divided government shows there has been “dealignment” – people disengaging from the parties